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GRASSES 

AND 

FORAGE     PLANTS 

A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE, 


COMPRISING 

THEIR  NATURAL  HISTORY  ;    COMPARATIVE  NUTRITIVE  VALUE  ;   METHODS 
OF  CULTIVATING,  CUTTING,  AND  CURING;   AND  THE  MANAGE- 
MENT OF  GRASS   LANDS   IN   THE  UNITED   STATES 
AND   BRITISH  PROVINCES. 


BY 

CHARLES   L.  FLINT, 

>N   "MILCH  COWS    AXD    DAIRY  FARMING," 


WITH  ONE  HUNDRED  AND  SEVENTY  ILLUSTRATIONS, 


FOURTH    EDITION, 

BEVISED     AND     ENLARGED. 


BOSTON: 
PHILLIPS,    SAMPSON    AND    COMPANY 

13  WISTKB   STREET. 

1859. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1859,  by 

CHARLES    L.    FLINT, 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


El.ctrotyp.d  by 
Hew  England  Typ.  and  Suieotype  Fouid.ry. 


I'RINTED    BY    R.   M.   EDWARDS. 


PREFACE. 


THE  object  of  the  following  pages  is  to  embody 
the  most  recent  practical  and  scientific  information 
on  the  history,  culture,  and  nutritive  value,  of  the 
grasses  and  the  grains.  To  make  the  work  practi- 
cally useful,  I  have  treated  the  subject  with  plain- 
ness and  simplicity,  so  far  as  it  admits  of  it,  and 
have  at  least  indicated  to  the  reader  the  vast  field 
of  study  which  lies  open  before  him  in  this  direction. 

The  large  number  of  illustrations  of  the  different 
species  of  grasses,  drawn,  as  they  have  been,  with 
great  care  and  accuracy,  will  serve  to  facilitate  the 
study  and  identification  of  unknown  specimens.  Most 
of  these  appeared  in  the  first  and  second  editions  of 
the  work.  I  have  added  to  this  edition  a  few,  drawn 
by  Professor  I.  A.  Lapham,  of  Milwaukie. 

In  treating  the  subject  from  an  economical  point 
of  view,  I  have  tried  to  give  what  is  known  to  be 
of  special  value,  and  have  presented  the  experience 
of  practical  men  upon  points  about  which  the  opin- 
ions of  farmers  differ.  The  reader  will  be  best  able 
to  judge  how  far  I  have  succeeded  in  accomplishing 
my  object. 

1*  (6) 


VI  PREFACE. 

It  seems  unnecessary  to ,  dwell  here  upon  the 
importance  of  the  subject.  Perennial  grasses,  says 
an  eminent  practical  farmer,  are  the  true  basis  of 
agriculture  in  the  highest  condition  of  that  best 
employment  of  man.  Grasses  which  are  not  peren- 
nial are  of  immense  value,  especially  as  one  of  the 
shifts  in  the  ordinary  rotation  of  crops,  suited  to  the 
agriculture  of  the  great  upper  or  northerly  portion 
of  our  continent,  all  of  it  above  the  cotton  line. 
But  it  is  the  grasses  which  are  perpetual  to  which 
we  are  to  look  for  our  chief  success  in  farming. 

Perhaps  the  most  forcible  expression  of  opinion 
on  this  point  may  be  found  in  a  French  writer,  who 
asserts  that  the  term  grass  is  only  another  name  for 
beef,  mutton,  bread,  and  clothing;  or  in  the  Bel- 
gian proverb,  "  No  grass,  no  cattle;  no  cattle,  no 
manure  ;  no  manure,  no  crops  ! " 

If  my  researches,  imperfect  as  they  doubtless 
have  been,  should  have  the  effect  of  creating  a  more 
general  interest  in  the  subject,  and  leading  to  more 
careful  inquiry,  and  more  general  and  accurate  in- 
vestigation, I  shall  be  amply  rewarded  for  any 
labor  which  I  have  bestowed  upon  the  preparation 
of  the  following  pages. 

C.  L.  F. 

BOSTON,  Aug.,  1859. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PACK 

INTRODUCTION,' 9 

CHAPTER    I. 

NATURAL   HISTORY  OF   THE    TRUE  GRASSES  WHICH    ARE    USED    FOR 
FORAGE, 11 

CHAPTER    II. 

THE   CEREALIA,  OR   GRASSES   CULTIVATED   FOR   THEIR   SEEDS,  .      .  155 

CHAPTER    III. 

THE  ARTIFICIAL  GRASSES,  OR  PLANTS  CULTIVATED  AND  USED  LIKE 
GRASSES,  THOUGH    NOT   BELONGING    TO   THE   GRASS   FAMILY,       .  183 

CHAPTER    IV. 

THE  GRASS-LIKE  RUSHES,  CARICES,  AND  SEDGES,  COMMONLY  CALLED 


197 


CHAPTER    V. 

TARIOUS   CLASSIFICATIONS   OF   THE   GRASSES, 205 

CHAPTER    VI. 

THE    COMPARATIVE    NUTRITIVE    VALUE   OF    THE    GRASSES,    .       .       .217 

(7) 


VIII  TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER.  VII. 

PAGB 

THE    CLIMATE    AND    SEASONS,   AND     THEIR    INFLUENCE   ON    THE 
GRASSES, 239 

CHAPTER    VIII. 

SELECTION,  MIXTURE,  AND   SOWING,    OF   GRASS-SEEDS,     ....  265 

CHAPTER    IX. 

TIME   AND   MODE   OF   CUTTING   GRASS   FOR   HAY 299 

CHAPTER   X. 

CURING  AND   SECURING   HAY, 329 

CHAPTER    XI. 

GENERAL   TREATMENT   OF   GRASS   LAND, 351 


CONCLUSION, 


SYSTEMATIC   INDEX, 


GENERAL    INDEX 391 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

I  PROPOSE  to  speak  of  the  grasses,  a  family  of  plants 
the  most  extensive  and  the  most  beautiful,  as  well  as 
the  most  important  to  mankind.  It  embraces  nearly  a 
sixth  part  of  the  whole  vegetable  kingdom ;  it  clothes 
the  globe  with  perpetual  verdure,  or  adorns  it  at  fixed 
seasons  with  a  thick  matted  carpet  of  green,  none  the 
less  beautiful  for  its  simplicity ;  and  it  nourishes  and 
sustains  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  animals  that 
serve  us  and  minister  to  our  wants. 

When  we  consider  the  character  of  our  climate,  and 
the  necessity  that  exists,  throughout  all  the  northern 
and  middle  portions  of  the  United  States  and  the  Cana- 
das,  of  stall-feeding  from  three  to  five  or  six  months  of 
the  year,  for  means  of  which  we  are  dependent  mainly 
on  the  grasses,  it  is  plain  that,  in  an  economical  point 
of  view,  this  subject  is  one  of  the  most  important  that 
can  occupy  the  farmer's  attention. 

The  annual  value  of  the  grass  crop  to  the  country, 
for  pasturage  and  hay  together,  cannot  be  less  than 
three  hundred  million  dollars,  to  say  nothing  of  a  vast 
amount  of  roots  and  other  plants  cultivated  and  used  as 
forage  crops. 

I  shall  endeavor  to  give  a  brief  account  of  the  natural 
history  or  description  of  all  the  useful  grasses  found  in 

(9) 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

our  fields  and  pastures,  partly  because  it  is  essential  to 
a  complete  understanding  of  Ihe  subject,  and  partly 
because  there  is  at  present  no  popular  treatise  on  the 
subject  within  the  easy  reach  of  our  farmers,  and  some- 
thing of  the  kind  is  needed  for  reference ;  but  I  shall 
confine  myself  mainly  to  a  plain  and  practical  treatment 
of  the  subject,  making  such  suggestions  as  I  think  may 
be  useful,  on  the  cultivation,  cutting,  and  curing,  of  the 
grasses  for  hay,  the  comparative  value  of  the  different 
varieties,  and  the  general  management  of  grass  lands. 

This  subject  has  long  been  familiar  to  me,  and  has 
especially  occupied  my  attention  for  the  last  few  years, 
during  which  I  have  made  an  extensive  collection,  em- 
bracing a  large  proportion  of  the  varieties  described  in 
the  following  pages,  for  preservation  in  the  Agricultural 
Museum  connected  with  my  office.  In  addition  to  my 
own  extensive  observations  on  the  subject,  I  have 
sought  information  in  the  statements  of  intelligent 
farmers  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  Many  of  these 
I  have  myself  conversed  with,  while  others  have  favored 
me,  in  writing,  with  the  results  of  their  own  experience, 
from  which  I  shall  draw  with  a  liberal  hand,  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  the  work  a  practical  character,  and 
of  bringing  the  subject  home  to  the  general  reader.  In 
treating  of  the  natural  grasses,  I  shall  limit  myself 
mainly  to  a  description  of  those  species  which  it  may 
be  for  the  interest  of  the  farmer  to  cultivate,  or  at 
least  to  encourage  in  his  pastures,  with  such  others  as 
should  be  known,  to  be  avoided. 

In  the  arrangement  of  species  I  shall  follow  mainly 
the  natural  order  adopted  by  Professor  Gray,  to  whom, 
as  well  as  to  many  others,  I  am  indebted  for  no  small 
assistance,  in  studying  the  specific  characteristics  of 
many  of  the  specimens  collected  and  presented  in  the 
following  pages. 


CHAPTER    I. 

NATURAL     HISTORY     OP     THE     TRUE     GRASSES 
WHICH     ARE     USED     FOR     FORAGE. 

THE  grasses,  in  popular  language,  are  variously 
divided.  They  are  sometimes  designated  as  natural 
and  artificial :  the  former  comprising  all  the  true 
grasses ;  that  is,  plants  with  long,  simple,  narrow 
leaves,  each  leaf  having  many  fine  veins  or  lines  run- 
ning parallel  with  a  central  prominent  vein  or  midrib, 
and  a  long  sheath,  Fig.  1,  divided  to  the  base,  which 
seems  to  clasp  the  stem,  or  through  which  the  stem 
seems  to  pass,  the  stem  being  hollow,  with  very  ferw 
exceptions,  and  closed  at  the  nodes  or  joints  ;  and  the 
latter  —  the  artificial  —  comprising  those  plants,  mostly 
leguminous,  which  have  been  cultivated  and  used  like 
the  grasses,  though  they  do  not  properly  belong  to  that 
family;  such  as  the  clovers,  sainfoin,  and  medic.  In 
common  language  the  term  is  often  used  in  a  sense  not 
strictly  proper,  being  not  unfrequently  applied  to  any 
herbage  which  affords  nourishment  to  herbivorous  or 
graminivorous  animals,  including,  of  course,  not  only 
many  leguminous  plants,  like  clovers,  but  some  others 
which  would  more  properly  be  called  forage  plants. 

But  in  botanical  language,  and  speaking  more  pre- 
cisely, the  grasses,  Graminece,  embrace  most  of  the 
grains  cultivated  and  used  by  man,  as  wheat,  rye,  Indian 
corn,  barley,  and  rice ;  all  of  which  will  be  at  once  recog- 


12  MEANS    OF    DISTINGUISHING    SPECIES. 

nized  as  having  leaves  and  stems  very  similar  in  shape 
and  structure  to  most  of  the  plants  popularly  called 
grasses. 

As  the  general  appearance  of  plants  is  often  greatly 
modified  by  climate,  soil,  and  modes  of  cultivation,  it  is 
important  to  fix  upon  certain  characteristics  which  are 
permanent  and  unaltered  by  circumstances,  by  means 
of  which  the  particular  genus  and  species  may  be  iden- 
tified with  ease  and  certainty.  It  is  evident  that  these 
characteristics  could  not  be  simply  in  the  leaves,  or 
the  stems,  or  the  size  of  the  plant,  because  there  will 
be  a  great  difference  between  plants  growing  in  a  poor, 
thin,  sandy  soil,  and  others  of  the  same  species  on  a 
deep,  rich  loam. 

Botanists  have,  therefore,  been  compelled  to  resort 
to  other  parts  and  peculiarities,  such  as  flowers,  &c.,  to 
distinguish  between  different  species;  and  the  terms  used 
to  express  these,  like  the  terms  used  in  other  departments 
of  natural  history,  are  technical ;  and  hence,  in  detail- 
ing the  natural  history  of  the  grasses,  the  use  of  tech- 
nical language,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  cannot  be 
avoided.  I  shall  endeavor,  however,  by  the  use  of 
plates  and  synonyms,  to  bring  the  description  of  species 
within  the  easy  comprehension  of  every  one  who  will 
carefully  examine  the  subject. 

The  flowers  of  the  grasses  are  in  some  cases  arranged 
on  the  stem  in  spikes,  as  where  they  are  set  on  a 
common  stalk  without  small  stalks  or  branches  for  each 
separate  flower,  as  in  Timothy  (Phleum  pratense) ;  in 
other  cases  in  panicles,  or  loose  subdivided  clusters,  as 
in  orchard  grass  (Dactylis  glomerata).  A  panicle  is 
said  to  be  loose  or  spreading,  as  in  redtop  (Agrostis 
vulgaris),  where  the  small  branches  on  which  the 
flowers  are  set  are  open,  or  extended  out  freely  in  dif- 
ferent directions ;  it  is  said  to  be  dense,  or  crowded,  or 


ESSENTIAL    PARTS.  13 

compressed,  when  the  branches  are  so  short  as  to  give 
it  more  or  less  of  the  spike  form. 

This  whole  arrangement  will  be  seen  in  Fig.  1,  which 
represents  a  stalk  of  the  common  annual  spear  grass 
(Poa  annua),  a  plant  familiar  to  every  one  as  often 
troublesome  in  gravel  walks  and  on  hard,  dry  soils. 
Here  the  joint,  the  stem,  or  culm,  clasped  by  the  sheath 
of  the  leaf,  the  leaf  itself,  the  ligule,  and  the  spikelets, . 
all  distinctly  appear ;  and  the  reader  will  do  well  to 
make  himself  familiar  with  the  few  technical  terms  used, 
by  a  study  of  this  figure,  in  connection  with  Fig.  2, 
where  the  spikelet  is  so  magnified  as  to  show  the  florets 
and  the  calyx  very  distinctly,  all  of  which  are  generally 
very  easily  seen  with  the  naked  eye,  and  Fig.  3,  show- 
ing a  floret  still  more  magnified,  with  its  two  palese,  the 
outer  pale  being  the  longer  and  generally  keeled ;  that 
is,  having  one,  three,  or  more  longitudinal  ribs,  often 
having  on  the  back,  base,  or  summit,  an  awn  or  beard 
of  different  lengths,  as  in  the  oat  and  brome  grasses, 
the  inner  pale  with  two  separate  fringed  ribs,  each  on 
a  fold  at  the  side.  The  calyx,  cup,  or  outer  scale 
of  the  spikelet,  is  shown  very  much  magnified  in  Fig. 
4,  composed  of  two  glumes,  the  upper  and  lower,  the 
upper  glume  being  the  larger.  The  glumes  and  pales 
are  known  also  by  the  name  of  husks  or  chaff,  and  are 
removed  if  possible  in  cleaning  the  seed,  as  in  the 
grains  used  for  their  meal.  One  or  both  of  the  glumes 
are  sometimes  wanting. 

In  Fig.  5  is  shown  the  pistil  magnified,  consisting  of 
the  nectary,  composed  of  one  or  two  fleshy  scales  (in 
some  plants  of  this  family  both  on  one  side,  in  others 
entirely  wanting),  and  the  germ,  ovary,  or  seed-bearing 
portion  of  the  pistil.  The  stamens  are  also  seen  in  the 
same  figure,  consisting  each  of  a  bag  filled  with  a  fine 
powder  or  pollen,  supported  upon  a  stalk  or  filament 


u 


TECHNICAL    TERMS. 


FERTILIZATION.  15 

which  is  analogous  to  the  stalk  or  stem  of  a  leaf;  while 
the  bag  which  holds  the  pollen,  called  the  anther,  cor- 
responds to  the  blade  or  body  of  the  leaf.  These  are 
essential  parts  of  the  flower. 

At  a  particular  stage  of  its  growth,  the  anther,  burst- 
ing, scatters  its  pollen,  some  of  which,  lighting  upon 
the  summit  of  the  stigma,  is  said  to  fertilize  it,  when  the 
new  seed  begins  to  enlarge,  and  a  germ  is  formed  capa- 
ble of  producing  other  plants.  The  process  is  very- 
apparent  to  the  observation  of  the  farmer  in  the  case  of 
Indian  corn,  on  which  the  pollen  is  so  abundant  that  it 
may  be  shaken  oft"  in  clouds.  It  falls  upon  the  stigmas 
or  "  silks,"  one  of  which  is  attached  to  each  embryo 
seed  or  germ ;  and  without  this  particle  of  pollen,  the 
seed  would  not  be  capable  of  attaining  maturity.  The 
same  arrangement  is  seen  less  plainly  in  the  other 
grasses,  as,  for  instance,  in  Timothy.  It  is  found  in 
this  whole  family  of  plants,  though  it  is  more  percep- 
tible in  Indian  corn,  on  account  of  its  size,  than  in  the 
smaller  grasses. 

The  germ  is  the  first  part  of  the  seed  that  is  distinctly 
formed,  and  hence,  if  the  seed  is  plucked  while  "  in  the 
milk/'  or  in  a  green  state,  it  will  germinate  the  next 
year  about  as  well  as  if  it  were  allowed  to  ripen. 

The  anther,  it  will  be  seen,  consists  of  two  cells,  — 
very  prominent  and  hanging,  supported  on  the  long, 
slender  filaments,  and  forked  or  divided  at  the  end. 
The  two  short  and  smooth  styles  rise  from  the  summit 
of  the  ovary,  and  the  stigmas  are  feathery  or  rough, 
sometimes  branched  or  compound.  Only  one  seed  is 
contained  in  each  ovary,  and  each  seed  is  covered, 
when  mature,  with  a  thin  husk  or  hull  called  the  peri- 
carp, which  originally  formed  the  germ  or  ovary ;  and 
the  ripe  seed  or  fruit  is  only  the  ovary  arrived  at  matu- 
rity. The  substance  or  albumen  of  the  seed  of  all  the 


16  THE    GRASS    FAMILY. 

grasses  is  mealy  or  farinaceous,  as  wheat,  for  instance, 
or  rye,  or  Indian  corn,  which  are  most  used  as  seeds, 
on  account  of  their  size  and  productiveness. 

These  are  the  prominent  characteristics  of  this  great 
and  universally  diffused  order  of  plants,  constituting,  as 
it  does,  the  chief  support  of  animals  as  well  as  man. 
They  belong,  as  has  been  seen,  to  other  plants  than  those 
commonly  called  grasses ;  the  order  Graminece,  as  I 
have  already  stated,  embracing  the  grains,  as  wheat, 
barley,  rye,  and  many  others,  while  it  does  not  include 
the  clovers,  which  properly  belong  to  the  order  of  legu- 
minous plants. 

These  characteristics,  or  at  least  the  most  important 
of  them,  will  be  very  easily  kept  in  mind,  as  the  long, 
narrow,  and  lance-shaped  leaves,  and  the  mealy  nature 
of  the  seeds,  which  makes  so  large  a  part  of  this  family 
valuable  and  nutritious ;  but  in  studying  the  distinctive 
characteristics  of  the  different  species  and  varieties  par- 
ticularly valuable  or  interesting  to  an  agriculturist  as 
forage  plants,  it  will  be  necessary  to  depend  much  upon 
the  technical  terms  already  referred  to,  though  in  the 
following  pages  these  will  be  avoided,  or  explained  in 
the  context  as  far  as  possible. 

It  will  have  been  observed  that  considerable  import- 
ance is  given  to  the  flowers  and  seeds  as  distinguishing 
characters  of  the  grasses.  It  will  often  be  found  diffi- 
cult from  the  mere  external  appearance  of  a  variety  of 
grass  to  determine  to  what  species,  or  even  to  what 
genus,  it  belongs,  so  great  is  the  resemblance  between 
the  different  species  of  this  class  of  plants ;  but,  with  the 
aid  of  a  small  magnifying  glass,  there  will  very  seldom 
be  much  difficulty  in  determining  the  species,  especially 
if  the  plant  is  taken  while  in  blossom.  Indeed,  it  will 
often  be  possible  to  arrive  at  a  conclusion  from  an 
inspection  of  a  few  of  the  more  evident  characters. 


LIST    OF    GRASSES. 


17 


A  frequent  reference  to  figures  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  5,  will 
greatly  aid  the  reader  in  becoming  familiar  with  the 
technical  terms  applied  to  the  organs  or  parts  of  the 
flower  which  it  is  desirable  to  understand,  and  by  means 
of  which  he  will  soon  learn  to  distinguish  the  different 
species  more  readily. 

In  giving  the  scientific  names,  the  first  word  that 
occurs  in  parenthesis  is  the  name  of  the  genus  ;  the 
second,  that  of  the  species  ;  as,  for  instance,  in  Timothy 
(Phleum  pratense),  Phleum  is  the  generic  name,  pra- 
ten-se  the  specific.  A  genus  often  contains  many 
species. 

The  grasses  which  are  described  more  or  less 
minutely  in  the  following  pages  are  named  in 

TABLE  I.  —  LIST  OF  THE  TRUE  GRASSES. 


Common  Name. 

Botanical  Name. 

Time  of 

Blossoming. 

Place  of  Growth. 

Rice  Grass,  

Leersia  oryzoides,   .   .   . 

August,  .    . 

Low,  wet  places. 

White  Grass    . 

Leersia  Virginica,    .    .   . 

1                  . 

Damp  woods. 

Catch  Fly  Grass,     .    .   . 

Leersia  lenticularis,    .   . 

August,  .    . 

Low  grounds. 

Indian  Rice,     

Zizania  aquatica,    .   .   . 

August,  .   . 

Borders  of  streams. 

Prolific  Rice,    

Zizania  miliacea,     .   .   . 

August,  .   . 

Wet  places. 

Meadow  Foxtail,     .   .   . 

Alopecurus  pratensis,     . 

May,   .    .   . 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Floating  Foxtail,     .    .   . 

Alopecurus  geniculatus, 

May,  June, 

Wet  meadows,  ditches. 

Slender  Foxtail,  .... 

Alopecurus  agrestis,  .   . 

July,   .   .   . 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Wild  Water  Foxtail,  .    . 

Alopecurus  aristulatus,  . 

June  to  Aug. 

In  wet  meadows. 

Timothy,   

Phleum  pratense,   .   .   . 

June,  July, 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Mountain  Cat's-tail,   .   . 

Phleum  alpinum,    .   .   . 

August,  .    . 

Wild  mountain  tops. 

Rush  Grass,  

Vilfa  aspera,     

Sept.,  .   .    . 

Dry,  sandy  soils. 

Hidden  Flowered  Vilfa,  . 

Vilfa  vaginseflora,  .   .   . 

Sept.,  .   .    . 

Sandy  &  gravelly  plains. 

Southern  Vilfa,    .... 

Vilfa  Virginica,    .... 

Aug.,  .   .   . 

Sandy  sea-shores. 

Rush  Drop-seed,  .... 

Sporobolus  junceus,    .   . 

Aug.,  .   .   . 

Dry  soils. 

Strong-scented  Drop-seed, 

Sporobolus  heterolepis,  . 

Aug.,  .   .   . 

Sandy  soils. 

Leaden  Drop-seed,     .   . 

Sporobolus  cryptandrus, 

Aug.,  .   .   . 

Sandy  soils. 

Smooth-leaved  Drop-seed, 

Sporobolus  compressus, 

Sept.,.   .   . 

Wet  bogs. 

Late  Drop-seed,  .... 

Sporobolus  serotinus,     . 

Sept.,.   .   . 

Wet  sands. 

Brown  Bent,     

Agrostis  canina,  .... 

June,  July, 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Tickle  Grass,   

Agrostis  scabra,  .... 

June,  July, 

Old,  dry  fields. 

Taller  Thiti  Grass,  . 

Agrostis  elata 

Oct., 

Swamm 

Thin  Grass,  

Agrostis  perannans,   .    . 

July,  Aug., 

Moist  shades. 

Redtop,     

Agrostis  vulgaris,  .   .   . 

July,  .   .   . 

Fields  and  pastures. 

English  Bent,  
Fiorin,   . 

Agrostis  alba,  
Airrostis  stolonifera.  . 

July,  .   .   . 
July.  . 

Fields  and  pastures. 
Moist  meadows. 

18 


LIST    OF    GRASSES. 


Common  Name. 

Botanical  Name.      • 

Time  of 
Blossoming. 

Place  of  Growth. 

Southern  Bent,     .... 

July.   . 

Fields,  pastures. 

Annual  Beard  Grass,     . 

Polypogon  monspeliensis,  j  June,  July,     Near  the  coast. 

Wood-reed  Grass,   .   .   . 

Cinna  arundinacea,    .   . 

July,  Aug,      Shady  swamps. 

Drooping-reed  Grass,     . 

Cinna  pendula,    .... 

Aug.,  .    .    .    Low  woods. 

Awnless  Muhlenbergia, 

Muhlenbergia  sobolifera, 

Aug.,  Sept.,  ;  Open,  rocky  woods. 

Clustering  Muhlenbergia, 

Muhlenbergia  glomerata, 

Aug.,  .    .    .  ',  Swamps. 

Mexican  Muhlenbergia, 

Muhlenbergia  Mexicana, 

Aug.,  .   .   .    Low  grounds. 

Sylvan  Muhlenbergia,   . 

Muhlenbergia  sylvatica, 

Aug.,  Sept.,    Rocky  woods. 

Willdenow's  Muhlenber- 
gia,     

Muhlenbergia  Willdenovii 

Aug.,  Sept., 

Open,  rocky  woods. 

Nimble  Will,    

Muhlenbergia  diffusa,    . 

Aug.,  Sept., 

Dry  hills,  woods. 

Hair  Grass,  

Muhlenbergia  capillaris, 

Aug.,  .   .   . 

Sandy  soils. 

Awned  Brachyelytrum, 

Brachyelytrum  aristatum 

June,  .   .   . 

Rocky  woods. 

Blue  Joint  Grass,    .   .   . 

CalamagrostisCanadensis 

July,   .   .   . 

Wet  grounds. 

Glaucous  Small  Reed,    . 

Calamagrostts  coarctata, 

Aug.,  .   .   . 

Wet  grounds. 

Close-flowered  Sm.  Reed, 

Calamagrostis  inexpansa, 

July,   .   .    . 

Swamps. 

Alpine  Reed  Bent,  .   .   . 

Calamagrostis  Pickeringii 

Sept.,.   .   . 

Mountain  tops. 

Purple  Bent,    

Calamagrostis  brevipilis, 

Sept.,  .   .    . 

Pine  barrens. 

Woolly  Bent,    

Calamagrostis  longifolia, 

Sept.,  .   .  . 

Si  nd  y  sea-shores. 

Beach  Grass,  Sea  Reed, 

Ammophila  arundinacea, 

Aug.,.   .    . 

Drifting  sands. 

Upright  Sea  Lyme  Grass, 

Elymus  arenarius,  .    .    . 

July,   .   .    . 

Drifting  sands. 

Black  Mountain  Rice,     . 

Oryzopsis  melanocarpa, 

Aug.,  .   .    . 

Rocky  woods. 

White  Mountain  Rice,   . 

Oryzopais  asperifolia,    . 

May,  .   .   . 

Wooded  hills. 

Canadian  Rice,    .... 

Oryzopsis  Canadensis,   . 

May,   .    .   . 

Rocky  hill-sides. 

Feather  Grass,    .... 

Stipa  pennata,  

Aug.,  .   .    . 

Gardens. 

Richardson's    Feather 

Grass,    

Stipa  Richardsonii,     .   . 

July,   .   .   . 

Pleasant  mountain. 

Black  Oat  Grass,    .   .   . 

July,   .   .   . 

Dry,  sandy  woods. 

Porcupine  Grass,    •   .   . 

Stipa  spartea,  

July,   .   .   . 

Prairies. 

Poverty  Grass,    .... 

Aristida  dichotomy    .   . 

Sept.,.    .   . 

Sandy  pine  barrens 

Three  Awned  Grass,  .   . 

Aristida  ramosissima,    . 

Sept.,.   .   . 

Dry  prairies. 

Grass     

Aristida  gracilis,     .   .   . 

Sept.,  .   .   . 

Sandy  fields. 

Downy  Triple  Awn,    .   . 

Aristida  stricta,  .... 

June,  July, 

Rocky  shades. 

Purple  Triple  Awn,    .   . 

Aristida  purpurascens, 

Sept.,  .   .   . 

Rocky  uplands. 

Prairie  Triple  Awn,    .    . 

Aristida  oligantha,     .   . 

July,   .   .   . 

Prairies. 

Long   Awned   Poverty 
Grass,    

Aristida  tuberculosa,     . 

July,  Aug., 

Dry  prairies. 

Fresh-water  Cord  Grass, 

Spartina  cynosuroides,  . 

Aug.,  .   .    . 

Banks  of  streams. 

Salt  Reed  Grass,     .   .   . 

Spartina  polystachya,    . 

Brackish  marshes. 

Rush  Salt  Grass,     .   .   . 

Spartina  juncea,  .... 

Aug.,  .   .   . 

Salt  marshes,  beaches 

Salt  Marsh  Grass,  .   .   . 

Spartina  stricta,  .... 

_ 

Sea-coast. 

Rough  Marsh  Grass,  .   . 

Spartina  glabra,  .... 

_ 

Salt  marshes. 

Smooth  Marsh  Grass,    . 

Spartina  alterniflora,  .   . 

Aug.,  Sept., 

Borders  salt  marshes. 

Toothache  Grass,    .   .   . 

Ctenium  Americanum,  . 

_ 

Wet,  sandy  plains. 

Muskit  Grass,  ..... 

Bouteloua  oligostachya, 

Aug.,  ...  I  Dry  lands. 

Bristly  Musktt,    ....  !  Bouteloua  hirsute,  .   .   . 

—            1  Sandy  plains. 

Hniry  MusMt,     .   .   .   .  |  Bnntcloua  curtipendula, 

July,  Sept.,   1  Stiff  soils. 

Naked  Beard  Grass,   .   .  ;  Gyranopogon  racemosus,   Aug.,.    .   .  |  Pine  barrens. 

LIST    OP    GRASSES. 


19 


Common  Name. 

Botanical  Name. 

Time  of 
Blossoming. 

Place  of  Growth. 

Short-leaved  Beard  Grass 
Bermuda  Grass,  .... 

Egyptian  Grass,  .   .   .   . 

Gymnopogon  brevifolius, 
Cynodon  dactyl"  m,  .    .    . 
Dactyloctenium     JEgyp- 

Aug.,  .   .   . 
July,   .   .   . 

July,   .   .   . 

Sandy  soils. 
Light  soils. 

Fields. 

Crop,  or  Crab  Grass,  .    . 
Pointed  Slender  Grass,  . 
Clustering  Slender  Grass, 
TallRedtop,     
Sand  Grass,     .... 

Eleusine  Indica,  .   .   .   . 
Leptochloa  mucronata,  . 
Leptochloa  fascicularis,  . 
Tricuspis  sesleroides,     . 

June,  .   .   . 
Aug.,  .   .   . 
Aug.,  .   .   . 
Aug.,.    .    . 

Fields,  yards. 
Fields. 
Brackish  marshes. 
Sandy  fields. 
Sands  on  the  coast 

Horned  Sand  Grass,   .   . 

July,   .   .  . 

Light  soils. 

Dupontia  Grass,  .... 
Twin  Grass,     
Orchard  Grass,    .... 
Crested  Koeleria,    .   .   . 
Truncated  Koelaria,    .   . 
Pennsylvanian  Eatonia, 
Melic  Grass,     
Rattlesnake  Grass,     .   . 
Obtuse  Spear  Grass,  .   . 
Long    Panicled    Manna 
Grass 

Dupontia  Cooleyi,  .   .   . 
Diarrhena  Americana,   . 
Dactylis  glomerata,    .   . 
Koeleria  cristata,     .   .   . 
Kffileria  truncata,  .   .   . 
Eatonia  Pennsylvania, 
Melica  mutica,     .... 
Glyceria  Canadensis,  .    . 
Glyceria  obtusa,  .... 

Glyceria  elongata,  .   .   . 

Aug.,  .   .  . 
June,  .  .   . 
July,   .   .    . 
June,  .   .   . 
June,  .   .   . 
June,  .   .   . 
July,   .   .   . 
Aug.,  .    .   . 

June,  July, 

Swampy  lands. 
Moist  shades. 
Fields  and  pastures. 
Prairies. 
Dry  fields. 
Moist  woods. 
Fields. 
Wet  bogs. 
Borders  of  ponds. 

Woods  and  swamps. 

Meadow  Spear  Grass,    . 
Pale  Manna  Grass,     .   . 
Water  Spear  Grass,    .   . 
Common  Manna  Grass, 
Pointed  Spear  Grass,  .   . 

Glyceria  nervata,    .   .   . 
Glyceria  pallida,     .   .   . 
Glyceria  aquatica,  .    .   . 
Glyceria  fluitans,    .    .   . 
Glyceria  acutiflora,     .   . 

June,  July, 
July,   .   .   . 
Aug.,  .   .   . 
June,  .   .   . 
June,  .   .   . 
July,  .   .    . 

Moist  and  wet  meadows 
Shallow  water. 
Wet  soils. 
Muddy  ditches. 
Wet  lands. 
Salt  marshes. 

Clustered  Spear  Grass,  . 

Glyceria  distans,     .   .   . 

July,   .   .    . 
Aug.    .   . 

Salt  marshes. 
Salt  marshes. 

Annual  Spear  Grass,  .    . 

Poa  annua,  
Poa  laxa,  

Apr.  to  Oct., 
July,   .    .   . 

Fields  and  pastures. 
High,  rocky  hills. 

Poa  brevifolia, 

Southern  Spear  Grass,  . 

Poa  flexuosa,   

Mar.,  May, 
May  June 

Upland  woods. 

Weak  Meadow  Grass,    . 
Sylvan  Spear  Grass,  .    . 
Fowl  Meadow,     .... 
Wood  Meadow  Grass,    . 

Poadebilis,  
Poa  sylvestris,     .... 
Poa  serotina,   

May,  .  .  . 

June,  .   .   . 
July  &  Aug. 
June,  .   .   . 

Woody  river  banks. 
Rocky  banks. 
In  wet  soils. 
Fields  and  pastures. 

Rough-stalked  Meadow, 
June  Grass,     
Blue  Grass    

Poa  trivialis,    
Poa  pratensis,  

July,  .   .   . 
June,  July, 
July,  Aug. 

Fields  and  pastures. 
Fields  and  pastures. 

Creeping  Meadow,  .   .    . 
Strong-scented  Meadow, 
Pungent  Meadow,  .   .   . 
Slender  Meadow,     .   .   . 
Short-stalked  Meadow,  . 
Southern  Eragrostis,  .   . 
Branching  Spear  Grass, 

Eragrostis  reptans,     .   . 
Eragrostis  poaeoides,  .    . 
Eragrostis  megastachya, 
Eragrostis  pilosa,    .   .   . 
Eragrostis  Frankii,     .   . 
Eragrostis  Purshii  .   .    . 
Eragrostis  tenuis,    .   .    . 

July  &  Aug. 
Aug.  &  Sept. 
Aug.,  .   .   . 
Aug.,  .   .   . 
Aug  
July,   .   .    . 
Aug.,  Oct., 

Sandy  river  banks. 
Sandy  fields. 
Sandy  fields. 
Sandy,  gravelly  places. 
Moist  sands. 
Sterile  plains. 
Sterile  plains. 

20 


LIST    OF    GRASSES. 


Common  Name. 

Botanical  Name.     -• 

Time  of 
Blossoming. 

Place  of  Growth. 

Ilair-panicled     Meadow 
Grass,    

Eragrostis  capillaris,  .   . 

Aug.,  Sept., 

Sandy  plains. 

Meadow  Comb  Grass,    . 

Eragrostis  pectinacea,   . 

Aug.,  Sept., 

Si  u  »ly  plains. 

Quaking  Grass,    .... 

Briza  media,     

June,  .   .   . 

Pastures. 

Small  Fescue  Grass,   .   . 

Festuca  tenella,   .... 

July,   .   .   . 

Dry,  sterile  soils. 

Sheep's  Fescue,   .... 

Festuca  ovina      .   .   •   . 

June,  .   .   . 

High  pastures  and  hills. 

Hard  Fescue  Grass,   .   . 

Festuca  duriuscula,    .   . 

June.  .   .   . 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Red  Fescue  Grass,  .    .    . 

Festuca  rubra,     .... 

_ 

Sandy  places  by  the  sea. 

Meadow  Fescue,  .    .   .   . 

Festuca  pratensis,  .   .   . 

June,  .   .   . 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Tall  Fescue  Grass,  .   .    . 

Festuca  elatior,  .... 

June,  July, 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Slender  Fescue,   .... 

Festuca  loliacea,  .... 

— 

Moist  meadows,  pastures. 

Nodding  Fescue,    .   .   . 

Festuca  Nutans,     .   .   . 

July,   .   .   . 

Rocky  woods. 

Crested  Dog's-tail,  .   .   . 

Cynosurus  cristatus,  .   . 

July,   .    .    . 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Willard's  Bromus,  .   .    . 

Bromus  secalinus,  .   .   . 

June,  July, 

Fields,  and  in  grain  crops. 

Smooth  Brome  Grass,    . 

Bromus  racemosus,     .   . 

June,  .   .   . 

Grain  fields. 

Soft  Chess,   

Bromus  mollis,     .... 

June,  .   .   . 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Wild  Chess,  

Bromus  Kalmii,  .... 

June,  July, 

Dry,  open  woods. 

Fringed  Brome  Grass,    . 

Bromus  ciliatus,  .... 

July,  Aug., 

Rocky  hills,  woods. 

Meadow  Brome,  .... 

Bromus  pratensis,  .   .   . 

July,   .   .   . 

Dry,  arid  pastures. 

Sterile  Brome  Grass,  .   . 

Bromus  sterilis,   .... 

July,   .   .   . 

Dry  pastures. 

Spike  Grass            .   .  . 

Uniola  paniculata,  .   .   . 

Aug.,  .    . 

Sands  on  the  coast. 

Broad-leaved  Spike  Grass 

Uniola  latifolia,    .... 

Aug.,.   .    . 

Shaded  fields. 

Slender  Spike  Grass,  .   . 

Uniola  gracilis,    .... 

Aug.,.   .   . 

Sands  on  the  coast. 

Common  Reed  Grass,    . 

Phragmites  communis,  . 

Sept.,  .    .   . 

Swamps,  edges  of  ponds. 

Arundinaria    macros  per- 

April,.   .   . 

Rich  soils. 

Slender  Tail  Grass,     .   . 

Lepturus  paniculatus,   . 

Aug.,.   .   . 

Salt  licks. 

Perennial  Rye  Grass,     . 

Lolium  perenne,  .... 

June,  .   .   . 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Italian  Rye  Grass,  .   .   . 

Lolium  Italicum,     .   .   . 

June,  .   .   . 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Bearded  Darnel,  .... 

Lolium  temulentum,  .   . 

July,    .    .    . 

Grain  fields. 

Many-flowered  Darnel,  . 

Lolium  multiflorum,  .   . 

June,  July, 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Couch,  or  Twitch  Grass, 

Triticum  repens,  .... 

June,  July, 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Bearded  Wheat  Grass,  . 

Triticum  caninum,  .   .   . 

July,   .    .   . 

Woody  banks. 

Squirrel-tail  Grass,     .   . 

Hordeum  jubatum,     .   . 

June,  .   .   . 

Salt  marshes. 

Barley  Grass,  

Hordcum  pusillum,    .    . 

May,   .   .   . 

Brackish  soils. 

Two-rowed  Barley,     .   . 

Hordeum  distichum,  .   . 

June,  .   .   . 

Fields. 

Four-rowed  Barley,    .   . 

Ilordeum  vulgare,  .   .   . 

June,  .   .   . 

Fields. 

Rye,  

Secale  cereale,     .... 

June,  .   .    . 

Fields. 

Lyme  Grass            . 

Elymus  Virginicus      . 

July  &  Aug. 

Banks  of  rivers. 

Canadian  Lyme  Grass,  . 

Elymus  Canadensia,  .   . 

Aug.,.   .   . 

River  banks. 

Slender  Hairy  Lyme,     . 

Elymus  striatus,  .... 

July,   .   .    . 

River  banks. 

Soft  Lyme  Grass,    .   .   . 

Elymus  mollis,     .... 

July,   .    .    . 

.Moist  soils. 

Bottle-brush  Grass,     .    . 

Gymnostichum  nystrix, 

July,   .    .    . 

Moist,  rocky  woods. 

Wood  Hair  Grass,  .   .   . 

Aira  flexuosa,  

June,  .   .   . 

Pry,  rocky  hills. 

Tufted  Hair  Grass,  .   .   . 

Aira  caespitosa,    .... 

June,  July, 

Marshy,  wet  bottoms. 

Purple  Alpine  Hair  Grass 

Aira  atropurpurea,     .   . 

Aug.,  .   .    . 

Hill  tops. 

Wild  Oat  Grass,  .   .   .   . 

Danthonia  spicata,     .    . 

June,  .   .   . 

Dry  pastures. 

Downy  Persoon,  .... 

Trisetum  molle,   .... 

July,   .   .   . 

Rocky  river  banks. 

Downy  Oat  Grass,  .  .   . 

Trisetum  pubescens,  .   . 

July,  .   .   . 

Poor,  dry  pastures. 

LIST    OF    GRASSES. 


21 


Common  Name. 

Botanical  Name. 

Time  of 
Blossoming. 

Place  of  Growth. 

Marsh  Oat  Grass,   .   .   . 

Trisetum  palustre,  .   .   . 

June,.   .  . 

Low  grounds. 

Meadow  Oat  Grass,    .   . 

vena  pratensis,     .   .   . 

July,  .   .  . 

Pastures. 

Yellow  Oat  Grass,  .   .   . 

vena  flavescens,  .  .   . 

July,  .  .   . 
June,  .   .   . 

Fields  and  pastures. 
Rocky  hill-sides. 

Early  Wild  Oat,  .... 

vena  praecox,  .... 

June,  .   .   . 

Sandy  soils. 

Common  Oat,  

vena  sativa,  

July,   .   .   . 

Cultivated  fields. 

Tall  Meadow  Oat  Grass, 

rrhenatherum   avena- 

May,  June, 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Meadow  Soft  Grass,     .   . 

Holcus  lanatus,    .... 

June,  .   .   . 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Creeping  Soft  Grass,  .    . 

Holcus  mollis,  

— 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Seneca  Grass,  

Hierochloa  borealis,    .   . 

May,   .   .   . 

Wet  meadows. 

Alpine  Holy  Grass,    .   . 

Hierochloa  alpina,  .    .    . 

July,   .    .   . 

Mountain  tops. 

Sweet-scented  Vernal,    . 

Anthoxanthum  odoratum 

May,  June, 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Eeed  Canary  Grass,  .   . 

Phalaris  arundinacea,    . 

July,   .   .   . 

By  running  streams. 

Common  Canary  Grass, 

Phalaris  Canariensis,     . 

July,  Aug., 

Gardens. 

Millet  Grass,    

Millium  effusum,     .   .   . 

June,  .    .   . 

Damp,  cold  woods. 

Double-bearing  Millet,   . 

Millium  Purshii,     .   .   . 

Sept.,.   .   . 

Moist  pine  barrens. 

Floating  Paspalum,    .    . 

Paspalum  fluitans,     .   . 

Oct.,    .   .   . 

Wet  swamps. 

Hairy  Slender  Paspalum, 

Paspalum  setaceum,  .   . 

Aug.,.    .    . 

Sandy  fields  by  the  sea. 

Smooth  Erect  Paspalum, 

Paspalum  Iseve,  .... 

Aug.,.    .    . 

Moist  meadows. 

Joint  Grass,  

Paspalum  distichum,  .   . 

July,  Aug., 

Wet  fields. 

Finger-shaped  Paspalum, 

Paspalum  digitaria,    .   . 

July,  Aug., 

Moist  grounds. 

Slender  Crab  Grass,   .    . 

Panicum  flliforme,  .    .   . 

Aug.,.    .    . 

Dry  sands  on  the  coast. 

Smooth  Crab  Grass,    .   . 

Panicum  glabrvun,  .    .   . 

Aug.,  Sept., 

Fields,  waste  places. 

Finger  Grass,  

Panicum  sanguinale,  .   . 

Aug.  to  Oct., 

Neglected  fields. 

Agrostis-like  Panic,    .   . 

Panicum  agrostoides,  .   . 

July,  Aug., 

Wet  med.,  river  banks. 

Double-headed  Panic,    . 

Panicum  anceps,     .    .   . 

Aug.,.    .    . 

Wet  pine  barrens. 

Prolific  Panic  Grass,  .   . 

Panicum  proliferum,  .   . 

July,  Aug., 

Brackish  marshes. 

Hair-stalked  Panic,    .    . 

Panicum  capillare,  .    .   . 

Aug.,  Sept., 

Dry,  sandy  fields. 

Autumn  Panic,    .... 

Panicum  autumnale,  .    . 

— 

Sand-hills. 

Bitter  Panic,    

Panicum  amarum,  .   .   . 

Aug.,  Sept., 

Sandy  shores. 

Tall  Smooth  Panic,     .    . 

Panicum  virgatum,    .   . 

Aug.,  .    .   . 

Moist,  sandy  soils. 

Broad-leaved  Panic,   .   . 

Panicum  latifolium,    .   . 

June,  July, 

Damp  thickets. 

Hidden-flowered  Panic,  . 

Panicum  clandestinum, 

July,  Aug., 

Moist  thickets. 

Small-seeded  Panic,   .   . 

Panicum  microcarpon,  . 

July,  Sept., 

Moist  thickets. 

Yellow  Panic,  

Panicum  xanthophysum, 

June,.   .   . 

Sandy  soils. 

Sticky  Panic  Grass,     .    . 

Panicum  viscidum,     .   . 

Aug.,  .   .   . 

Moist  soils. 

Millet,    

Panicum  miliaceum,  .   . 

June,  .    .    . 

Cultivated  grounds. 

Few-flowered  Panic,  .   . 

Panicum  pauciflorum,    . 

June,  July, 

Wet  soils. 

Polymorphus  Panic,  .   . 

Panicum  dichotomum,    . 

June,  Aug., 

Moist  fields. 

Worthless  Panic,    .   .   . 

Panicum  depauperatum, 

June,  .   .    . 

Dry  woods. 

Warty  Panic,  

Panicum  verrucosum,    . 

Aug.,.   .    . 

Sandy  swamps. 

Hungarian  Grass,   .   .   . 

Panicum  germanicum,  . 

— 

Cultivated  grounds. 

Barn  Grass,     

Panicum  crus-galli,     .    . 

Aug.,  Sept., 

Eich  cultivated  grounds. 

Bristly  Foxtail,    .... 

Setaria  verticillata,     .    . 

— 

About  farm-houses. 

Bottle  Grass 

Setaria  elauca 

July,  .   .  . 

Fields  and  barn-yards. 

Green  Foxtail,     .... 

Setaria  viridis,     .... 

Cultivated  fields. 

Bengal  Grass,  

Setaria  Itahca,     .... 

_ 

Fields. 

Burr  Grass,  

Cenchrus  tribuloides,    . 

Aug.,.    .    . 

Sands  near  the  coast. 

22 


HOW    TO    EXAMINE    SPECIMENS. 


Common  Name. 

Botanical  Name.     -. 

Time  of 
Blossoming. 

Place  of  Growth. 

Tripsacum  dactyloides,  . 
Erianthus  alopecuroides, 
Erianthus  brevibarbis,  . 
Andropogon  forcatus,    . 
Andropogon  scoparius,  . 
Andropogon  argenteus, 
Andropogon  Yirginicus, 

Andropogon  macrorus,  . 

Aug  
Sept  
Aug.,  .   .   . 
Sept.,.   .   . 
July  to  Sept., 
Sept.,.    .    . 
Sept.,.   .   . 

AUK 

Moist  places  on  the  coast 
Moist  pine  barren. 
Low  grounds. 
Sterile,  rocky  hills. 
Sterile,  sandy  plains. 
Barren  soils. 
Sandy  soils. 

Low  grounds. 

Dry  soils. 
Cultivated  fields. 
Fields. 
Cultivated  grounds. 
Cultivated  grounds. 
Cultivated  erouiids. 

Woolly  Beard  Grass,  .    . 
Short-bearded  Erianthus, 
Finger-spiked  Wood,  .   . 
Purple-wood  Gross,    .   . 
Silver  Beard  Grass,    .   . 
Virginian  Beard  Grass,  . 
Cluster-flowered    Beard 
Grass,    

Indian  Grass,  

DhourraCorn,  .... 

Sorghum  vulgare,  .   .   . 
Sorghum  saccharatum,  . 
Sorghum  nigrum,    .   .   . 
Sorghum  Bicolor,    .  .  . 

July,  .  .  . 
July.  .  .  . 
Aug,,.  .  . 
Julv.  . 

Chinese  Sugar-cane,  .  . 
Chocolate  Corn,  .... 
Indian  Corn.  . 

To  aid  the  reader  in  finding  the  true  name  of  an 
unknown  specimen  of  grass,  the  following  arrangement 
will  be  found  to  be  very  convenient,  and  easily  under- 
stood. Let  the  flowers  of  the  grass  be  first  examined. 
If  but  one  is  found  in  each  spikelet,  refer  to  number  2, 
of  the  left-hand  column,  and  then  examine  and  see 
whether  they  are  arranged  in  panicles  or  spikes  ;  if  the 
former,  then  refer  to  number  3  of  the  left-hand  column, 
and  see  whether  they  are  awned  or  not.  If  awned, 
refer  to  number  4,  if  without  awns,  to  number  12,  of 
the  left-hand  column.  If  unawued,  and  having  two 
glumes,  refer  to  13,  and  so  on.  If  without  glumes 
and  aquatic,  it  is  a  zizania,  or  wild  rice. 

If  in  the  first  examination  the  spikelets  are  found  to 
have  two  or  more  flowers,  refer  to  number  26,  of  the  left- 
hand  column,  and  see  whether  the  inflorescence  is  in 
panicles  or  spikes.  If  the  former,  refer  to  27,  of  the 
left-hand  column.  If  the  latter,  in  spikes,  refer  to  39, 
and  then  see  whether  the  spikelets  are  two-rowed,  or 
one-sided.  If  the  latter,  refer  to  45,  and  see  whether 
the  spikes  are  digitate  and  the  spikelets  in  two  rows. 
If  they  are,  refer  it  to  the  genus  Eleusine. 


ANALYSIS    OF    SPECIMENS.  23 

But  little  practice  will  be  required  to  gain  familiarity 
in  thus  analyzing  the  flowers  of  the  grasses. 

1.  Spikelets  with  but  one  flower,      2 

1.  Spikelets  with  two  or  more  flowers, 26 

2.  Flowers  arranged  in  panicles 3 

2.  Flowers  in  spikes, 16 

3.  With  awns 4 

3.  Without  awns, 12 

4.  Glumes  large, 5 

4.  Glumes  minute,  unequal,  one  hardly  perceptible, 11 

4.  Glumes  none,  grass  aquatic, 2 — Zizania. 

6.  Without  abortive  rudiments, 6 

5.  With  an  abortive  rudiment  of  a  second  flower, 52— Holcus. 

6.  Palese  two,    . 7 

6.  Pale*  three,  upper  awned  flowers  polygamous,  .     65 — Sorghum. 

7.  Palea  with  one  awn, 8 

7.  Lower  palea  with  three  twisted  awns, 15 — Aristida. 

8.  Palese  cartilaginous  or  gristly, 9 

8.  Palese  herbaceous, 10 

8.  Palese  membranaceous,  panicle  open 7 — Agrostis. 

8.  Paleae  membranaceous,  panicle  contracted,    .   .   .8 — Polypogon. 
9.  Flowers  sessile,  or  joined  to  the  stem  at  tie  base,    .   .    13 — Oryzopsia. 

9.  Flowers  stipitate,  fruit  black, 14 — Stipa. 

10.  Flowers  naked,  with  one  stamen 9 — Cinna. 

10.  Flowers  hairy,  stamens  three 12 — Calamagrostis. 

11.  Stamens  three, 10— Muhlenbergia. 

11.  Stamens  two, 11 — Brachyelytrum. 

12.  Glumes  two 13 

12.  Glumes  none,  leaves  rough  from  the  end  backwards,   1 — Leersia. 

13.  Paleaj  membranaceous, 14 

13.  Palese  leathery,  spikelets  all  cauline, 56— Milium. 

13.  Paleaa  leathery,  fertile  spikelets  radical,    ....     57 — Amphicarpon. 

14.  Fruit  coated,  or  covered  with  a  husk 15 

14.  Fruit  naked, 6 — Sporobolus. 

15.  Flowers  stalked 7— Agrostis. 

15.  Flowers  sessile 5— Vilfa. 

16.  Flowers  awned, 17 

16.  Flowers  without  awns 22 

17.  Spikes  solitary, 18 

17.  Spikes  many,  awnless,  unilateral,  palete  cartilaginous,     59— Panicum. 

17.  Spikelets  two,  fertile, 63— Erianthua. 

17.  Spikes  two,  polygamous,  sterile  flowers  bearded,  .   .  64— Andropogon. 

18.  Spikes  simple,  or  nearly  so 19 

18.  Spikes  paniculate,  or  lobed, 21 


24  ANALYSIS    OF    SPECIMENS. 

19.  Involucre  none, 20 

19.  Involucre  of  two  or  more  bristles,  .  .'' 60 — Setaria, 

19.  Involucre  burr-like, 61 — Cenchrus. 

'20.  Paleae  with  awns  one  to  three  times  their  length,  3 — Alopecurus. 

20.  Palese  with  awns  five  times  their  length,  .  .  .  44 — Hordeum. 

21.  Both  glumes  and  palese  awned, 10 — Muhlenbergia. 

21.  Glumes  awnless,  single  palea  awned, 54 — Anthoxanthum. 

21.  Paleae  two,  lateral  flowers  staminate, 53 — Hierochloa. 

22.  Flowers  perfect  or  polygamous 23 

22.  Spikes  monoecious, 25 

23.  Spikes  one-sided, 24 

23.  Spikes  cylindrical,  solitary  terminal, 4 — Phleum. 

24.  Spikes  two  or  more,  spikelets  suborbicular,  .   .    58 — Paspalum. 

24.  Spikes  digitate  or  verticillate,  linear 59 — Panicum. 

24.  Spikes  pedunculate,  in  a  two-sided  panicle,  .    .    .  16 — Spartina. 

24.  Spikes  sessile,  in  a  one-sided  panicle,  ....  41 — Lepturus. 
25.  Spikes  all  terminal,  sterile  above,  fertile  at  base,  .  .  62 — Tripsacum. 
25.  Fertile  spikes  lateral,  sterile  ones  terminal  panicled,  ....  66 — Zea. 

26.  Inflorescence  in  panicles 27 

26.  Inflorescence  in  spikes 39 

27.  Flowers  awned, 28 

27.  Flowers  without  awns, 33 

28.  Lower  palea  awned  on  the  back, 29 

28.  Lower  palea  awned  on  the  apex 32 

29.  Awn  near  the  base  of  the  palea, 30 

29.  Awn  near  the  apex  of  the  palea, 31 

30.  Apex  bifid,  awn  bent, 50— Avena. 

30.  Apex  bifid,  awn  bent,  lower  flower  sterile,  51 — Arrhenatherum. 

30.  Apex  multifid, 47— Aira. 

81.  Paleae  with  two  bristly  teeth, 49— Trisetum. 

31.  Paleae  bifid, 37— Bromus. 

32.  Lower  palea  rounded,  obtuse, 35 — Briza. 

32.  Lower  palea  entire,  pointed,  fruit  coated,     .    .    .    36 — Festuca. 

82.  Awn  between  two  teeth,  twisted 48 — Danthonia. 

33.  Terminal  flower  perfect, 34 

83.  Terminal  flower  abortive,  or  a  mere  pedicel, 36 

34.  Paleae  entire,  outer  one  mucronate 35 

34.  Glumes  unequal,  like  the  lower  abortive  pale,       59 — Panicum. 

84.  Glumes  equal,  longer  than  the  palea, 55 — Phalaris. 

34.  Lower  palea  truncate-mucronate,  inner  bifid,      .    .  38 — Uniola. 

84.  Flowers  silky-bearded  on  the  racliis 39 — Phragmites. 

84.  Spikelets  terete,  paleae  seven-nerved, 31— Glyceria. 

84.  Spikelets  two  to  six,  five-nerved, 33 — Poa. 

84.  Spikelets  two  to  twenty,  three-nerved,  ....    34 — Eragrostis. 

34.  Spikelets  flat,  lower  pale  laterally  compressed,  32 — Brizopyrum. 


THE    GRASS     FAMILY.  25 

35.  Scales  two  —  styles  two, 86 — Festuca. 

35.  Scales  and  styles  three, 40 — Arundinaria. 

36.  Panicle  contracted, 37 

36.  Panicle  large  diffuse, 30— Melica. 

37.  Lower  palea  one-pointed,  or  mucronate, 38 

37.  Lower  palea  pointless,  29 — Eatonia. 

37.  Lower  palea  three-cleft 24 — Tricuspis. 

37.  Lower  pale  awnless, 25 — Dupontia. 

38.  Stamens  three 28— Koeleria. 

38.  Stamens  two 26— Diarrhena. 

39.  Spikelets  two-ranked, 37 

39.  Spikelets  unilateral, 43 

40.  Glumes  broad, 41 

40.  Glumes  subulate, 42 

40.  Glumes  none,  46 — Gymnostichum. 

41.  Glumes  two,  in  the  upper  spikelet  only, 42 — Lolium. 

41.  Glumes  two,  in  each  spikelet, 43 — Triticum. 

42.  Glumes  collateral,  spikelets  in  twos  or  more,    .    .    46 — Elymus. 

42.  Glumes  opposite,  spikelets  solitary, 45 — Secale. 

43.  One  perfect  among  several  neutral  ones, 17 — Ctenium. 

43.  One  perfect  flower  below  several  neutral  ones, 44 

43.  Spikelets  conglomerate,  or  paniculate, 27 — Dactylis. 

43.  Spikelets  with  more  than  one  perfect  flower, 45 

44.  Spikes  dense 18— Bouteloua. 

44.  Spikes  filiform,  racemed, 19 — Gymnopogon. 

44.  Spikes  slender,  digitate 20— Cynodon. 

45.  Spikes  digitate,  glumes  and  pale  awnless,  blunt,  ....  22 — Eleusine. 
45.  Spikes  racemed,  slender, 23 — Leptochloa. 

The  order  GRAMINEJB,  or  the  GRASS  FAMILY,  embraces, 
as  already  said,  plants  with  cylindrical  stems,  for  the 
most  part  hollow,  and  closed  at  the  joints,  with  leaves 
in  two  alternate  rows,  and  sheaths  open  on  the  side 
opposite  the  blade,  down  to  the  point  from  which  they 
start.  The  flowers  are  in  little  spikelets  held  in  two- 
rowed  glumes  or  bracts,  the  outer  glumes  generally 
two  in  number,  and  unequal.  The  stamens  vary  from 
one  to  six,  but  are  usually  three,  in  number.  The 
ovary  is  simple,  with  two  styles  and  two  feathery  stig- 
mas ;  and  the  fruit  is  enclosed  in  a  husk,  called  a  cary- 
opsis.  This  great  and  universally  diffused  order  is 
divided  by  botanists  into  tribes,  sub-tribes,  genera, 


26  WHITE    GRASS.  —  CUT    GRASS. 

species,  and  varieties  ;  the  tribes  and  sub-tribes  em- 
bracing more  or  Jess  genera ;  each  genus  embracing 
more  or  less  species,  and  a  species  often  embracing 
varieties.  In  the  arrangement  of  the  following  pages 
each  genus  is  numbered  in  its  order ;  and  the  first  we 
have  is 

1.  LEERSIA.  White  Grass. 

Spikelets  one-flowered ;  flowers  perfect,  flattened, 
compressed  in  one-sided  panicled  spikes  or  clusters, 
jointed  with  the  short  pedicels.  Glumes  wanting,  paleaa 
boat-shaped,  flattened  laterally,  awnless,  closed,  nearly 
equal  in  length,  the  lower  one  much  the  broader,  and 
enclosing  a  flat  grain.  Stamens  one  to  six ;  stigmas 
feathery,  with  branching  hairs;  sheaths  rough  or  prickly 
upwards.  Perennial ;  swamps  and  low  grounds.  Ge- 
neric name  from  Leers,  a  German  botanist. 

WHITE  GRASS,  CUT  GRASS,  FALSE  RICE  (Leersia  ory- 
zoides),  is  very  common  in  wet,  swampy  places,  and 
along  the  margins  of  sluggish  streams  and  ditches. 
Stems  from  two  to  four  feet  high  ;  panicle  erect,  spread- 
ing, with  rough, slender  branches;  leaves  narrow,  long; 
sheaths  exceedingly  rough  and  sharp  to  the  hand,  drawn 
from  the  end  downward.  Florets  oval  and  white,  or 
whitish  green;  spikelets  flat.  Flowers  in  August.  Said 
to  be  a  native  of  Europe  and  Asia,  as  well  as  the  United 
States.  Common  in  most  parts  of  the  country,  and 
often  known  at  the  South  as  "  rice's  cousin." 

This  beautiful  grass  is  of  no  agricultural  value  ;  and 
the  farmer  should,  by  careful  draining,  encourage  the 
growth  of  more  valuable  species  in  its  place. 

SMALL-FLOWERED  WHITE  GRASS,  VIRGINIAN  CUT  GRASS 
(Leersia  Virginica),  is  rather  smoother  than  the  pre- 
ceding. A  branch  of  the  panicle  is  shown  in  Fig.  6. 
The  panicle  is  simple,  slender,  the  spikelets  closely  ap- 
pressed,  oblong.  A  magnified  spikelet  is  shown  in  Fig.  7, 


CATCH    FLY    GRASS. — BICE. 


27 


Fig.  6.  Fig.  11. 

Virginia  Cut  Grass. 


opened  in  Fig.  8,  with  its  stamens 
and  pistil  in  Fig.  9,  a  part  of  the 
stigma  highly  magnified  in  Fig.  10, 
and  a  seed  in  Fig.  11.  It  is  a  del- 
icate-looking and  beautiful  grass, 
but  possesses  no  agricultural  value, 
and  may  be  rooted  out  like  the 
preceding. 

CATCH  FLY  GRASS  (Leersia  lenti- 
cularis)  is  smoothish,  stem  and 
panicle  erect,  pale*  flat,  with  keel 
and  veins  very  hairy.  Pursh  ob- 
served it  catching  flies  like  the 
Venus'  fly-trap  (Dionea  muscipula), 
the  pale*  resembling  the  leaves 
of  that  plant  in  structure.  Fig.  8 
will  serve  to  show  how,  by  a 
motion  similar  to  that  of  the  sen- 
sitive-plant, an  insect  might  be 
entrapped.  Found  in  wet,  low 
grounds  in  Ohio,  Illinois,  Virginia, 
and  south.  It  is  perennial, and  flow- 
ers in  July. 

RICE  ( Oriza  satlva)  is  nearly  al- 
lied to  this  genus.  See  chapter  on 
the  grasses  cultivated  for  their 
seeds. 


2.  ZIZANIA. 


Indian  Rice. 


S laminate  and  pistillate  flowers  both  in  one  flowered 
spikelets  in  the  same  panicles;  glumes  wanting  or  rudi- 
mentary, forming  a  little  cup;  palese  convex, awiiless  in. 
the  staminate  flowers,  the  lower  tipped  with  a  straight 
awn  in  the  pistillate;  stamens  six,  stigmas  pencil-formed. 
Stout,  often  reedy  aquatic  grasses. 


Fig.  12. 


PROLIFIC    RICE.  29 

Indian  Rice,  WILD  RICE,  or  WATER  OATS  (Zizania 
aquatica),  Fig.  12,  is  found  in  swampy  borders  of  streams, 
in  shallow  water,  and  is  common.  It  grows  from  three 
to  nine  feet  in  height,  with  flat,  long,  lanceolate  leaves. 
Panicle  large,  pyramidal;  lower  branches  sterile,  spread- 
ing ;  upper,  pistillate  or  fertile,  erect.  Flowers  in  July 
and  August,  and  drops  its  seed,  when  ripe,  at  the  slight- 
est touch,  and  this  furnishes  food  for  water-fowls.  It  is 
also  used  for  food  by  the  aborigines.  North  America. 

This  plant  is  the  folle  avoine  of  the  early  settlers  of 
Louisiana.  It  is  exceedingly  prolific,  growing  wild  in 
all  the  Southern  States,  where  it  is  said  to  produce  two 
crops  in  a  year  of  good  hay,  of  which  stock  of  every 
kind  are  very  fond.  It  is  greedily  eaten  when  green. 

In  the  Western  States,  where  it  is  also  common  in  the 
shallow  water  on  the  swampy  margins  of  streams,  it 
forms  an  important  food  for  the  Indians,  who  paddle  a 
canoe  among  the  rice,  bend  it  over  the  sides,  and  beat 
out  the  grains  with  a  stick. 

In  Fig.  13,  the  staminate  flowers  are  seen  as  they 
appear  at  the  end  of  a  branch  of  the  natural  size.  Fig. 
14  represents  a  staminate  flower,  magnified ;  Fig.  15, 
the  germ  and  stigmas  ;  Fig.  16,  a  fertile  or  pistillate 
flower ;  Fig.  17,  the  same,  ripe  ;  Fig.  18,  the  seed. 
Contrary  to  the  usual  arrangement,  the  fertile  or  pistil- 
late flowers  are  above  the  sterile  or  staminate  ones,  while 
the  minute  grains  of  pollen,  being  lighter  than  the  atmos- 
phere, rise  when  they  leave  the  anther,  and  thus  come  in 
contact  with  the  stigmas.  In  Indian  corn,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  grains  of  pollen  are  heavier  than  the  surround- 
ing air,  and  so  fall  from  the  sterile  flowers  of  the  "tas- 
sel "  upon  the  styles  or  "  silks,"  and  thus  fertilize  them. 

PROLIFIC  RICE  (Zizania  miliacea)  is  also  found  at  the 
South.  Panicle  spreading,  sterile  and  fertile  flowers 
intermixed.  Awns  short,  styles  united,  grain  smooth. 


30 


MEADOW    FOXTAIL. 


Annual ;  flowers  in  August.    Grows  from  six  to  ten  feet 
high  in  shallow  water.   Ohio,  Wisconsin,  and  the  South. 


3.  ALOPECURUS. 


Foxtail  Grasses. 


Spikelets  one-flowered  ;  glumes  boat- 
shaped,  compressed  and  keeled,  nearly 
equal,  united  at  the  base  ;  lower  palea 
awned  on  the  back  below  the  mid- 
dle, upper  palea  wanting  ;  stamens 
three  ;  styles  mostly  united  ;  stigmas 
long  and  feathered;  leaves  smooth  and 
flat.  Panicle  contracted  into  a  cylin- 
drical, soft  spike,  like  the  tail  of  a  fox, 
from  which  it  derives  its  generic  name. 
Introduced  and  naturalized  from  Great 
Britain. 


Fig.  19.    Meadow  Foxtail. 


MEADOW  FOXTAIL  (Alopecurus 
tensis],  Fig.  19,  has  an  erect,  smooth 
stem,  two  or  three  feet  high,  with 
swelling  sheaths  ;  spikes  cylindrical, 
obtuse,  equalling  the  sharp  cone-like 
glumes  ;  awn  twisted,  and  twice  the 
length  of  the  blossom,  Fig.  20.  The 
spike  not  so  long  as  that  of  Timothy. 
Flowers  in  May,  in  fields  and  pastures. 
Perennial  —  introduced. 

The  meadow  foxtail  close- 
ly resembles  Timothy,  but 
J(  may  be  distinguished  from 
it  as  having  one  palea  only. 
The  spike  or  head  of  mead- 
ow foxtail  is  soft,  while 
that  of  Timothy  is  rough. 
It  flowers  earlier  than  Tim- 
othy, and  thrives  on  all  soils 
except  the  dryest  sands  and 

Fig.  20. 


SLENDER    FOXTAIL.  31 

gravels.  It  is  common,  but  is  disliked  by  many  farm- 
ers as  a  field  grass,  being  very  light  in  proportion  to 
its  bulk. 

It  is  a  valuable  pasture  grass,  on  account  of  its  early 
and  rapid  growth,  and  of  its  being  greatly  relished  by 
stock  of  all  kinds.  The  stems  and  leaves  are  too  few 
and  light  to  make  it  so  desirable  as  a  field  crop.  It 
thrives  best  on  a  rich,  moist,  strong  soil,  and  shoots  up 
its  flowering  stalks  so  much  earlier  than  Timothy,  that  it 
need  not  be  mistaken  for  that  grass,  though  at  first  sight 
it  considerably  resembles  it.  It  is  superior  to  Timothy 
as  a  permanent  pasture  grass,  enduring  the  cropping  of 
sheep  and  cattle  better,  and  sending  up  a  far  more  luxu- 
riant aftermath. 

It  is  justly  regarded,  therefore,  as  one  of  the  most 
valuable  of  the  native  pasture  grasses  of  England,  form- 
ing there  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the  sward,  and 
enduring  a  great  amount  of  forcing  and  irrigation. 
Though  forming  a  close  and  permanent  sod  when  fully 
set,  it  does  not  acquire  its  full  perfection  and  hold  of 
the  soil  until  three  or  four  years  after  being  sown. 

The  nutritive  qualities  of  meadow  foxtail  are  most 
abundant  at  the  time  of  flowering.  It  is  said  to  lose 
upwards  of  seventy  per  cent,  of  its  weight  in  drying,  if 
cut  in  the  blossom. 

The  seed  of  meadow  foxtail  is  covered  with  the  soft 
and  woolly  husks  of  the  flower,  while  the  larger  glume  is 
furnished  with  an  awn.  There  are  five  pounds  of  seed 
in  a  bushel,  and  seventy-six  thousand  seeds  in  an  ounce. 
An  insect  attacks  the  seed  while  it  is  forming,  and  it  is 
also  subject  to  blight ;  and  hence  good  seed  is  somewhat 
difficult  to  procure,  and  is  held  at  a  high  price. 

SLENDER  FOXTAIL  (Alopecurus  agrestis),  Fig.  21,  is 
rarely  found  here,  but  is  sometimes  introduced  in  for- 


32 


SLENDER  AND  FLOATING  FOXTAIL. 


Pig.  21.    Slender  Foxtail. 


Fig.  22. 


Fig.  24.     Floating  Foxtail. 


eign  seed.      It  may  be  recognized  by  its  long,  slender 
panicle,  tapering  at  each  end,  and  the  long  awn  which 


FLOATING    AND    WILD    WATER    FOXTAIL.         33 

projects  beyond  the  pales.  In  Figs.  22  and  23  the 
flowers  are  seen.  It  is  distinguished  from  meadow  fox- 
tail by  its  slender  panicle,  its  larger  spikelets,  its  larger 
ligule,  and  the  roughness  of  the  stem  and  leaves.  It 
possesses  no  particular  agricultural  value.  Flowers  in 
July.  Annual.  Native  of  Great  Britain. 

FLOATING  FOXTAIL  (Alopecurus  geniculatus)  has  a 
stem  ascending,  bent,  and  forming  knees  at  the  lower 
joints,  as  shown  in  Fig.  24;  awn  projecting  beyond  the 
palea,  Fig.  25,  which  is  rather  shorter  than  the  obtuse 
glumes  ;  anthers  linear,  upper  leaf  as  long  as  its  sheath ; 
root  perennial,  fibrous  ;  joints  smooth,  long,  and  narrow, 
of  a  purple  tinge ;  leaves  flat,  sharp,  roughish  on  both 
sides,  serrated  on  the  edge.  Inflorescence  simple  pan- 
icled  ;  spikelets  numerous,  compressed,  erect,  with  a 
one-awned  floret  as  large  as  the  calyx.  Floret  of  one 
palea,  awn  slender.  Found  in  moist  meadows,  ditches, 
ponds,  and  slow  streams,  floating  on  the  water.  It  is 
distinguished  from  meadow  foxtail  in  having  the  upper 
sheath  about  the  length  of  its  leaf,  and  by  the  project- 
ing awn,  while  in  the  meadow  foxtail  the  upper  sheath 
is  more  than  twice  the  length  of  its  leaf.  Flowers  in 
May  and  June. 

It  is  a  grass  not  much  relished  by  stock  of  any  kind, 
while  it  yields  but  a  small  amount  of  herbage. 

The  WILD  WATER  FOXTAIL  (Alopecurus  aristnlatus} 
also  grows  in  wet  meadows,  but  is  of  no  special  agri- 
cultural value.  Native  of  Great  Britain. 

4.   PHLEUM.  CaVs-Tail. 

Panicle  spiked,  spikelets  compressed,  palea  shorter 
than  the  awned  glumes,  the  lower  one  truncate,  usually 
awnless  ;  styles  distinct,  filaments  hairy,  spike  dense, 
rough,  or  harsh.  So  called  from  an  ancient  Greek  term 


34  TIMOTHY. 

signifying  cat's  tail,  the  name  by  which  it  is  still  most 
frequently  known  in  Great  Britain. 

TIMOTHY,  HERD'S  GRASS  (Phleum 
pratense).  Fig.  26.  Spikes  cylin- 
drical or  elongated ;  glumes  hairy 
on  the  back,  tipped  with  a  bristle 
less  than  half  their  length;  leaves 
long, flat,  rough,  with  long  sheaths; 
root  perennial,  fibrous  on  moist 
soils,  on  dry  ones  often  bulbous. 
Grows  best  on  damp,  peaty  soils. 
Flower  Fig.  27.  The  name  of  Tim- 
othy, by  which  it  is  more  generally 
-;/  known  over  the  country,  was  ob- 

/tained  from  Timothy  Hanson,  who 
is  said  to  have  cultivated  it  exten- 
sively, and  to  have  taken  the  seed 
from  New  York  to  Carolina.  Its 
culture  was,  according  to  some 
accounts,  introduced  into  Eng- 
land, from  Virginia,  by  Peter 
Wynche,  about  the  years  1760  or 
1761. 

It  is  frequently  called  Herd's 
grass  in  New  England  and  New 
York,  and  this  was  the  original 
name  under  which  it  was  culti- 
vated ;  it  was  derived 
<\  I  M  from  a  man  of  that  name, 

b  N  \>\  .v  01  ,,///,  , .  T          J 

who,  according  to  Jared 
Eliot,  found  it  growing 
wild  in  a  swamp  in  Pis- 
cataqua,  N.  H.,  more 
Fig.  26.  Timothy.  Fig.  27.  than  a  century  and  a 


QUALITIES    OP    TIMOTHY.  35 

half  ago,  and  began  to  cultivate  it.  In  Pennsylvania,  and 
states  farther  south,  this  name  is  applied  to  Agrostis 
vulgaris,  or  the  redtop  of  New  England. 

Sinclair  states,  as  the  result  of  the  experiments,  about 
thirty  years  ago,  at  Woburn  Abbey,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  and  with  the  assistance  of  Sir 
Humphrey  Davy,  that  the  crop  when  ripe  exceeds  in 
nutritive  value  the  crop  at  the  time  of  flowering.  This 
conclusion  is  sustained  by  the  more  recent  investigations 
of  Prof.  Way,  whose  elaborate  analyses  of  the  grasses 
will  be  found  on  a  subsequent  page.  This  might  be 
inferred  from  the  size  and  weight  of  the  mealy  seeds 
when  the  grass  is  ripe,  as  many  as  thirty  bushels  of  which 
having  been  known  to  be  produced  on  a  single  acre. 

As  a  crop  to  cut  for  hay  it  is  probably  unsurpassed 
by  any  other  grass  now  cultivated.  Though  somewhat 
coarse  and  hard,  especially  if  allowed  to  ripen  its 
seed,  yet  if  cut  in  the  blossom,  or  directly  after,  it  is 
greatly  relished  by  all  kinds  of  stock,  and  especially  so 
by  horses,  while  it  possesses  a  large  percentage  of 
nutritive  matter  in  comparison  with  other  agricultural 
grasses.  It  is  often  sown  with  clover,  but  the  best 
practical  farmers  are  beginning  to  discontinue  this  cus- 
tom, on  account  of  the  different  times  of  blossoming  of 
the  two  crops.  Timothy  being  invariably  later  than 
clover,  the  former  must  often  be  cut  too  green,  before 
blossoming,  when  the  loss  is  great  by  shrinkage,  and 
when  the  nutritive  matter  is  considerably  less  than  at  a 
little  later  period ;  or,  the  clover  must  stand  too  long, 
when  there  is  an  equally  serious  loss  of  nutritious  mat- 
ter and  of  palatable  qualities  in  that. 

Timothy  thrives  best  on  moist,  peaty  or  loamy  soils, 
of  medium  tenacity,  and  is  not  suited  to  sandy  or  light 
gravelly  lands;  for  though  on  such  soils,  by  great  care, 
it  can  be  made  to  grow  and  produce  fair  crops,  some 


36  MOUNTAIN  CAT'S-TAIL. 

other  grasses  are  better  suited  to  them,  and  more  profit- 
able. It  grows  very  readily  and  yields  very  large  crops 
on  favorable  soils.  I  have  known  instances  where  its 
yield  was  four  tons  to  the  acre  of  the  best  quality  of 
hay,  the  Timothy  constituting  the  bulk  of  the  grass.  It 
is  cultivated  with  ease,  and  yields  a  large  quantity  of 
seed  to  the  acre,  varying  from  ten  to  thirty  bushels  on 
rich  soils. 

In  one  respect,  perhaps,  it  must  be  admitted  that  this 
grass  is  inferior  to  meadow  foxtail,  and  that  is,  in  the  qual- 
ity of  its  aftermath  ;  for  while  that  of  the  latter  is  very 
great,  the  aftergrowth  of  Timothy  is  comparatively 
slight,  and  if  allowed  to  stand  too  long  and  then  mown 
in  a  dry  time,  it  starts  so  slowly  as  to  leave  the  ground 
exposed  to  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun,  unless  indeed 
there  happens  to  be  a  rapid  growth  of  clover  to  protect 
it.  The  comparative  value  of  this  grass  will  be  referred 
to  hereafter. 

It  is  proper  to  say,  in  this  connection,  that  it  is  fre- 
quently attacked  by  an  insect  apparently  just  before  the 
time  of  blossoming,  which  causes  the  stalk  to  die.  The 
ravages  of  this  insect  seem  to  have  increased  within 
the  last  few  years.  My  attention  has  been  repeatedly 
called,  by  observing  and  practical  farmers,  to  the  large 
number  of  Timothy-stalks  killed  by  this  devouring  in- 
sect. No  means  of  preventing  its  ravages  are  as  yet 
known. 

MOUNTAIN  CAT'S-TAIL  (Phleum  olpinum]  is  a  grass 
that  grows  to  the  height  of  from  six  to  twelve  inches, 
on  mountain  and  hill  tops  in  New  Hampshire,  and  high 
northern  latitudes,  and  is  easily  distinguished  by  its 
short,  bristly  spike  or  panicle,  seldom  exceeding  an  inch 
in'length.  It  is  of  little  or  no  agricultural  value,  since 
it  is  rarely  eaten  even  by  sheep.  Blossoms  in  July. 


THE    BUSH    GRASSES.  37 


5.  VILFA.  Mush  Grass. 

Spikelets  in  a  contracted  or  spike-like  panicle,  one- 
flowered  ;  glumes  keel-shaped,  the  lower  one  smaller ; 
pales  awnless,  nearly  equal,  generally  longer  than  the 
glumes ;  stigmas  feathery,  seed  or  grain  oblong. 

ROUGH-LEAVED  VILFA,  RUSH  GRASS  ( Vilfa  aspera), 
grows  from  two  to  four  feet  high  on  sandy  soils  and 
old  fields.  Lower  leaves  long,  rigid,  and  rough  on  the 
edges,  tapering  to  a  long  twisted  point ;  sheaths  partly 
enclosing  the  panicle ;  seed  oval,  oblong.  Flowers  in 
September.  Perennial.  Of  no  agricultural  value. 

HIDDEN  FLOWERED  VILFA  ( Vilfa  vaginceftora)  is  an 
annual,  with  many  slender  stems,  six  to  twelve  inches 
long,  leaves  awl-shaped,  pales  nearly  equal,  and  about 
the  leng-th  of  the  nearly  equal  glumes.  This  grass  is 
common  on  barren,  sandy  soils,  in  most  parts  of  the 
country  from  New  England  to  Illinois,  and  especially 
so  at  the  South.  Of  no  known  agricultural  value. 

6.    SPOROBOLUS.      Drop-seed  Grass. 

Spikelets  generally  one,  sometimes  two  flowered,  in 
a  contracted  or  open  panicle.  Seed  loose  when  ripe, 
whence  the  name  of  the  genus,  from  two  Greek  words, 
signifying  to  cast  forth. 

RUSH-LIKE  DROP  SEED  (Sporobolus  junceus]  is  a  pe- 
rennial grass,  with  long,  folding,  narrow,  rigid  leaves, 
with  a  loose  panicle,  flowering  in  August,  spikelets 
long  and  shining.  Prairies  Wisconsin,  and  at  the 
South. 

STRONG-SCENTED    VILFA    (Sporobolus    heterolepis).— 

Leaves  twisting,  thread-like,  rigid,  the  lowest  as  long 

as  the  stem,  which  is  usually  from  one  to  two  feet  high; 

panicle  pyramidal,  loose,  open ;  glumes  very  unequal ; 

4 


38  THE    GENUS    AGROSTIS. 

lower  awl-shaped,  upper  taper-pointed,  and  longer  than 
the  lower  pales.  Perennial,  flowering  in  August.  The 
plant  emits  a  strong  odor.  Connecticut,  New  York, 
and  the  Western  States  to  Illinois. 

LARGE-PANICLED  VILFA  (Sporobolus  cryptandrus}. — 
Panicle  lead-colored,  pyramidal ;  base  usually  enclosed 
in  the  upper  sheath,  from  which  the  panicle  appears  to 
burst  with  spreading  branches  ;  flowers  awnless  ;  lower 
glume  very  short ;  stem  from  one  to  three  feet  high ; 
stamens  three,  anthers  yellowish,  styles  distinct,  stigmas 
white.  Grows  on  sandy  soils  in  New  York,  and  at 
the  South  and  West,  where  it  is  common. 

CLOSE-FLOWERED  DROP  SEED  (Sporobolus  compressus). 
—  A  smooth,  leafy  grass,  with  stout,  flat  stems,  found  in 
bogs  in  the  pine  barrens  of  New  Jersey,  where  it  forms 
tussocks  from  one  to  two  feet  high.  Of  no  agricultural 
value. 

LATE  DROP  SEED  (Sporobolus  serotinus)  is  sometimes 
found  in  low,  swampy  places,  with  smooth,  slender, 
flattish  stems ;  leaves  few  and  slender ;  panicle  spread- 
ing, with  hairy  branches;  glumes  ovate,  obtuse,  and 
half  the  length  of  the  palea.  Flowers  in  September. 
It  is  a  delicate  grass,  of  no  special  agricultural  value. 

7.  AGROSTIS.  Sent  Grass. 

One-flowered  spikelets  in  a  loose,  open  panicle  ; 
glumes  nearly  equal,  the  lower  pointless,  and  longer 
than  the  paleae,  which  are  thin  and  naked;  stamens 
three  ;  perennial. 

TALLER  THIN  GRASS  (Agrostis  elata). —  A  stout  grass, 
from  two  to  three  feet  high.  Spikelets  crowded  on  the 
branches  of  the  spreading  panicle  above  the  middle ; 
lower  palea  awnless  ;  upper  wanting.  In  swamps,  from 
New  Jersey  southward. 


TICKLE    GRASS.  —  BROWN    BENT.  39 

THIN  GRASS  (Agrostis  perennans}. —  Panicle  diffusely 
spreading,  pale  green ;  branches  short,  divided,  and 
flower-bearing  from  or  below  the  middle ;  found  in  damp, 
shaded  places.  Perennial.  Flowers  in  June  and  July. 

HAIR  GRASS  or  FLY-AWAY  GRASS,  TICKLE  GRASS 
(Agrostis  scabra),  is  another  species  belonging  to  this 
genus,  with  a  panicle  very  loose  and  spreading,  pur- 
plish; the  long  capillary  branches  flower-bearing  near 
the  apex ;  stems  slender,  one  to  two  feet  high ;  leaves 
short  and  narrow.  Flowers  in  June  and  July.  Common 
in  old  fields  and  drained  swamps.  It  is  of  no  particu- 
lar agricultural  value. 

The  large,  loose  panicles  are  exceedingly  delicate  and 
brittle  when  the  plant  is  ripe  and  dry,  and  easily  break 
away  from  the  stalk,  when  they  are  blown  about  by  the 
wind  scattering  their  seeds  far  and  wide ;  and  hence  it 
is  frequently  called  "  Fly-away  Grass,"  illustrating  one 
of  the  admirable  contrivances  of  nature  for  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  seeds  of  grasses  and  other  plants. 

BROWN  BEXT  or  DOG'S  BENT  GRASS  (Agrostis  canina), 
another  species  of  agrostis,  has  for  its  specific  charac- 
ters an  erect,  slender,  spreading  panicle ;  root  peren- 
nial and  creeping ;  stem  erect,  slender ;  leaves  flat  and 
linear.  The  palea  shorter  than  the  glume,  and  fur- 
nished with  a  long,  bent  awn  on  the  back,  a  little  below 
the  middle  ;  spikelets  at  first  greenish,  afterwards  brown 
or  slightly  purple.  Meadows  and  pastures,  and  wet, 
peaty  places  —  introduced.  Flowers  in  June  and  July. 
It  is  of  no  special  agricultural  value. 

The  ALPINE  BROWN  BENT  (Agrostis  canina,  var.  al- 
pina),  the  UPRIGHT  FLOWERED  BENT,  and  many  other 
species,  might  be  mentioned ;  but,  of  all  the  species  of 
this  genus,  the  redtop  and  whitetop  are  the  most  com- 
mon as  agricultural  grasses  among  us. 


40 


REDTOP. 


REDTOP,  FIXETOP,  BURDEN'S  GRASS,  HERD'S  GRASS  of 
Pennsylvania  and  Southern 
States  (Agrostis  vulyaris), 
Fig.  28.  —  Stems  erect,  slen- 
der, round,  smooth,  and  pol- 
ished ;  roots  creeping,  pan- 
icle oblong,  leaves  linear, 
ligule  very  short ;  lower 
palea  mostly  awnless,  and 
three-nerved.  Flowers  in 
July.  A  magnified  flower  is 
shown  in  Fig.  29.  In  pas- 
tures and  moist  meadows 
very  common  —  introduced. 
The  term  agrostis  was  the 
ancient  Greek  word  for 
field,  and  was  applied  to 
all  varieties  of  grass  that 
grew  there. 

This   valuable    grass,    so 
common  in  all  our  cultivated 
fields,  has  been    an    inhab- 
itant of  our  soils  for  more 
than    a    century.      It    was 
called  simply  English  Grass 
by  Eliot,  Deane,  and  other 
early  writers,  and   by   the 
English,  Fine  Bent. 
Most  of  the  grasses 
of   this   genus    are 
known  in  England 
under  the  name  of 
"Bent   Grass,"    of 
which     there     are 

Tig.*, 


AS    A    PASTURE    GRASS.  41 

Redtop  is  often  sown  with  Timothy  and  common  red 
clover,  in  which  case  the  clover  of  course  soon  disap- 
pears, when  Timothy  follows,  after  which  redtop  usually 
takes  its  place,  and,  with  some  wild  grasses,  forms  a  close 
sward.  In  Pennsylvania,  and  states  further  south,  it  is 
universally  known  as  Herd's  Grass — a  name  applied  in 
New  England  and  New  York  to  Pldeum  pratense  alone. 
It  is  of  somewhat  slow  growth,  but  of  good  or  medium 
quality,  suited  to  moist  soils,  though  common  to  all. 

This  grass  is  probably  rather  overrated  by  us.  It 
makes  a  profitable  crop  for  spending,  though  not  so 
large  as  that  obtained  from  Timothy.  It  is  a  good  per- 
manent grass,  standing  our  climate  as  well  as  any  other, 
and  consequently  well  suited  to  our  pastures,  in  which 
it  should  be  fed  close ;  for,  if  allowed  to  grow  up  to 
seed,  the  cattle  refuse  it ;  and  this  seems  to  show  that 
it  is  not  so  much  relished  by  stock  as  some  of  the  other 
pasture  grasses.  The  fact  that  cattle  eat  any  grass 
greedily  in  the  spring,  is  no  proof  of  its  excellence  or 
nutritious  qualities;  since  then  all  grasses  are  tender 
and  full  of  juice,  and  many  varieties  of  both  grasses 
and  shrubs  are  readily  eaten,  which,  at  a  more  advanced 
stage  of  growth,  are  refused. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  Professor  Way,  in  his  val- 
uable investigations  into  the  nutritive  value  of  the 
grasses,  did  not  include  this  in  the  list  analyzed  by  him. 
At  present  we  have  no  accurate  and  reliable  means  of 
comparison  of  this  with  other  species  of  grass,  as  in 
the  case  of  many  other  species. 

This  grass  is  known  by  various  names,  and  is  greatly 
modified  by  soil  and  cultivation.  On  a  moist,  rich  soil 
it  grows  larger  than  on  a  poor,  thin  soil;  and  not  only 
larger,  but  has  a  darker,  purplish  color,  with  a  stem  vary- 
ing from  eighteen  inches  to  two  or  two  and  a  half  feet 
high ;  while  on  thin,  poor,  gravelly  soils,  it  seldom 
4* 


42  ENGLISH    BENT. 

grows  over  twelve  inches,  and  often  not  over  five  or  six 
inches  high,  while  it  has  a  lighter  color.  In  the  latter 
situations  it  goes  by  the  name  of  Finetop,  and  is  uni- 
versally seen  in  old,  dry  pastures.  In  some  sections, 
where  it  is  highly  esteemed,  it  goes  by  the  name  of 
Burden's  or  Borden's  Grass ;  in  others,  of  Rhode  Island 
Bent ;  but  I  am  unable  to  discover  any  difference  be- 
tween these  and  redtop,  except  that  produced  by  vari- 
eties of  soils ;  and,  on  inquiring  of  some  of  the  largest 
dealers  in  seeds,  I  find  that  orders  for  all  these  are  sup- 
plied from  the  same  seed. 

Finetop  may  be  regarded  as  a  variety  of  redtop, 
produced  by  the  character  of  the  soil. 

ENGLISH  BENT,  WHITETOP,  DEW  GRASS,  WHITE  BENT, 
BONNET  GRASS  (Agrostis  alba}.  Stem  erect,  round, 
smooth,  polished,  having  four  or  five  leaves  with  rough- 
ish  sheaths ;  striated,  upper  sheath  longer  than  its  leaf, 
crowned  with  a  long,  acute,  ragged  ligule;  joints  smooth; 
branches  numerous,  recumbent,  rooting  at  the  lower 
joints  where  they  come  in  contact  with  the  ground,  as 
shown  in  figure  30 ;  panicle  somewhat  narrower  than 
in  redtop,  lightish  green,  or  with  a  slight  tinge  of  pur- 
ple ;  lower  or  inner  palea  one  half  the  length  of  the 
upper,  and  shorter  than  the  glumes ;  five-nerved,  awn- 
less,  perennial.  Native  of  Europe. 

Whitetop  may  be  known  from  redtop  by  the  sheaths 
being  rough  to  the  touch  from  above  downwards,  and 
the  ligule  being  long  and  acute,  and  the  keel  of  the 
large  glume  of  the  calyx  toothed  nearly  to  the  base. 
In  redtop  the  sheaths  are  smooth,  ligule  short  and  ob- 
tuse, and  the  keel  of  the  large  glume  toothed  only  on 
the  upper  part. 

It  may  be  known  from  Brown  Bent  (Agrostis  ca- 
nina),  by  having  an  inner  palea  in  its  floret,  while  in 
Brown  Bent  the  inner  palea  is  wanting.  It  is  very 


F10RIN    GRASS. 


43 


common  on  the  Connecticut  River  meadows,  where  it 
appears  to  be  indigenous,  and  is  there  called  the  Eng- 
lish Bent.  It  is  often  used  in  the  manufacture  of  bon- 
nets. 

FIORIN  (Agrostis  stolo- 
nifera),  Fig.  30,  is  only  a 
variety  of  English  bent, 
which  gained  great  noto- 
riety some  years  ago  in 
Ireland  and  England,  vol- 
umes having   been  writ- 
ten in  its  praise,  while  it 
received  the  execrations 
of  those   who    found   it 
troublesome  to  eradicate, 
on  account  of  its  creep- 
ing    and     stoloniferous 
/  roots.     It  belongs  pecu- 
liarly  to    moist    places, 
which    are    occasionally 
overflowed,  and  is  some- 
times    known     as     the 
BROAD-LEAVED  CREEPING 
BENT.     In   the   Woburn 
experiments  it  was  found 
to   be   inferior  in  nutri- 
tive   value    to    orchard 
grass     (Dactylis    glome- 
rata)   and    meadow   fes- 
cue, and  superior 
to    meadow  fox- 
tail. A  magnified 
flower     of     this 
grass  is  shown  in 

Fig.  31.    Fig.  31. 


lig.  30.  Florin  G 


44 


SOUTHERN    BENT. 


The  SOUTHERN  BENT  (Agrostis  dispar),  Fig.  32,  is  a 
native  of  this  country,  and  has  been  highly  extolled  in 

France.    It  was  at  one 
time  highly  commend- 
ed   in    England,    but 
was  very  soon  discard- 
ed.   It  furnishes  a  hay 
of  rather  coarse  qual- 
ity, and  yields  a  large 
produce  on  good, deep 
sands  and  calcareous 
soils.     It  tillers  much, 
and  when  once  rooted 
is  very  vigorous  and 
lasting,     and      conse- 
quently makes  a  good 
pasture  grass.      It  is 
similar  in  appearance 
to  some  of  the  broad- 
leaved    varieties     of 
^  red  top,  and  is  said  to 
yield  more  than  red- 
top.     It  has  stronger 
and    more   numerous 
creeping  roots,  broad- 
er  leaves,  and   more 
upright    leafy 
stems.      It   is 
most  frequent- 
ly met  with  in 
the    Southern 
States,  and  in 
the    south  of 
France.     Fig. 

ng.32.    Southern  Bent.  Fig.  33.     33    ^presents 


BEARD    GRASS.  —  INDIAN    REED.  45 

the  flower  of  this  grass  magnified.     I  am  not  aware  that 
it  has  been  cultivated  in  this  country. 

8.  POLYPOGON.  Beard  Grass. 

Panicle  contracted,  spike-like,  with  one-flowered 
spikelets ;  glumes  or  scales  nearly  equal,  with  long 
awus  ;  stamens  three  ;  grain  free. 

ANNUAL  BEARD  GRASS  (Polypogon  monspeliensis)  is 
occasionally  found  near  the  coast.  It  may  be  known  by 
having  glumes  with  awns  more  than  twice  their  length, 
growing  from  ten  to  fifteen  inches  high ;  stem  erect, 
round,  and  a  little  rough ;  five  or  six  leaves,  flat,  rather 
broad  and  acute ;  panicle  dense,  spikelets  one-flowered 
—  introduced.  It  is  easily  distinguished  by  the  length 
of  its  awns  or  beards.  Of  no  agricultural  value.  Found 
at  the  Isle  of  Shoals  and  on  the  coast  southward. 

9.  CINNA.         Wood  Reed  Grass. 

Glumes  acute,  strongly  keeled ;  the  lower  smaller, 
smooth,  naked;  lower  longer  than  the  upper,  with  a 
sharp  awn  on  the  back.  Stamen  one ;  grain  oblong, 
free;  perennial.  Grasses  somewhat  sweet-scented, 
from  two  to  seven  feet  high. 

WOOD  REED  GRASS,  INDIAN  REED,  REEDY  CINNA 
(Cinna  arundinacea),  has  spikelets,  one-flowered, 
feathered ;  glumes  lanceolate,  acute,  strongly  keeled, 
pale*  like  the  glumes,  short-awned  ;  perennial.  Stems 
erect  and  reed-like,  three  or  four  feet  high.  The  spike- 
lets  are  green,  or  of  a  slight  purplish  tinge.  Moist 
woods  and  swamps ;  common  at  the  West  and  South,  as 
well  as  northward.  Flowers  in  July  and  August. 
Panicle  large,  hairy,  rather  dense.  A  large,  rank  grass, 
differing  from  others  in  having  but  one  stamen  in  each 
flower.  Of  no  special  agricultural  value. 


46  THE    DROP-SEED    GRASSES. 

DROOPING  REED  GRASS  (Cinna  pendula). —  Branches 
of  the  loose  pauicle  long  and  hairy,  drooping.  Spike- 
lets  about  half  the  size  of  those  in  the  preceding 
species.  Grows  in  moist  woods ;  perennial,  flowering  in 
August.  Found  around  Lake  Superior. 

10.  MUHLENBERGIA.      Drop-seed  Grass. 

Spikelets  one-flowered  in  contracted  slender  panicles. 
Glumes  minute ;  paleae  usually  hairy,  bearded  at  the 
base,  herbaceous,  the  lower  three-nerved,  pointed,  or 
awned  at  the  tip.  Stamens  three.  Named  from  Dr. 
Muhlenberg,  a  distinguished  American  botanist. 

The  AWNLESS  MUHLENBERGIA  (Muhlenbergia  sobolifera) 
is  sometimes  found  in  open,  rocky  woods,  from  New 
England  to  Michigan,  and  south.  It  grows  from  one  to 
two  feet  high,  with  a  simple  contracted  panicle,  very 
slender ;  glumes  long,  pointed,  nearly  equal ;  root  pe- 
rennial, creeping,  woody  ;  leaves  pale-green,  sheaths 
open,  ligule  wanting.  Flowers  in  August  and  Septem- 
ber. Of  no  known  agricultural  value. 

CLUSTERING  MUHLENBERGIA  (Muhlenbergia  glomerata). 
—  From  one  to  two  feet  high,  stems  upright,  somewhat 
branched  ;  panicle  oblong,  linear,  contracted  into  an 
interrupted  glomerate  spike,  with  long  peduncles,  or 
flower-stalks,  and  awned  glumes ;  perennial.  Flowers 
in  August  and  September.  Common  in  swamps  and 
low  grounds.  Of  no  agricultural  value. 

The  MEXICAN  MUHLENBERGIA  (MiMenbergia  Mexi- 
cana),  another  species  of  this  genus,  has  been  mistaken 
by  some  for  our  fowl  meadow.  It  has  an  erect  stem, 
two  to  three  feet  high,  much  branched ;  panicles  lateral 
and  contracted,  branches  densely  spiked  and  clustered, 
green  or  purplish;  glumes  pointed,  awnless,  and  un- 
equal. It  is  perennial.  Flowers  in  August.  Frequently 
regarded  as  a  troublesome  weed  in  low  grounds,  the 


NIMBLE    WILL.  —  HAIR    GRASS.  47 

borders  of  fields,  and  even  in  gardens,  where  its  spread- 
ing roots  are  difficult  to  eradicate.  Cattle  eat  it  very 
readily,  and,  as  it  blossoms  late  in  the  season,  it  is  of 
some  value. 

The  SYLVAN  MUHLENBERGIA  (Muhlenbergia  sylvatica] 
is  also  rather  common  in  low,  rocky  woods.  Its  stem  is 
ascending,  from  two  to  four  feet  high,  branched,  spread- 
ing diffusely ;  panicles  contracted,  densely  flowered  ; 
glumes  nearly  equal,  bristle  pointed,  lower  palea  one- 
awned,  twice  or  three  times  the  length  of  the  spikelets. 
Flowers  in  August  and  September. 

WILLDENOW'S  MUHLENBERGIA  (Muhlenbergia  Willde- 
novii)  is  also  not  uncommon  in  rocky  woods,  growing 
about  three  feet  high,  with  a  slender,  simple  stem,  con- 
tracted panicle,  loosely  flowered,  glumes  sharp-pointed, 
half  as  long  as  the  lower  palea,  which  has  an  awn  from 
three  to  four  times  the  length  of  the  spikelet. 

NIMBLE  WILL  (Muhlenbergia  diffusa)  is  common  at 
the  West,  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  southward, 
where  it  forms  a  pasture  grass  of  some  value.  Its 
stems  are  diffusely  branched,  from  ten  to  eighteen 
inches  high ;  panicles  slender,  contracted ;  glumes 
minute ;  awn  nearly  twice  as  long  as  the  palea.  It  is 
found  on  dry  hills  and  in  woods.  Flowers  in  August 
and  September ;  perennial.  Cattle  eat  it  very  readily. 

HAIR  GRASS.  —  Still  another  species,  not  unfrequently 
called  Hair  Grass  (Muhlenbergia  capillaris'),  is  some- 
times found  on  sandy  soils,  from  New  England  to  Ken- 
tucky, and  at  the  South. 

None  of  the  grasses  of  this  American  genus  are  of 
great  value  for  agricultural  purposes,  except  as  they 
add  considerably  to  the  mass  of  living  verdure  which 
clothes  our  low  lands  in  beauty  to  delight  the  eye  and 
swell  the  heart  of  the  lover  of  nature. 


48  BLUE    JOINT    GRASS. 

11.  BRACHYELYTRUM.       Brachyelytrum. 

Glumes  two,  very  minute,  lower  scarcely  to  be  seen ; 
lower  pale  with  a  long  bristle  at  the  top,  upper  with 
rudimentary  flower  at  the  base ;  perennial. 

The  ERECT  MUHLENBERGIA,  or  AWNED  BRACHYELY- 
TRUM (Brachyelytrum  aristatum),  is  often  found  in  rocky 
woods,  on  the  sides  of  Wachuset  Mountain,  and  in  many 
other  similar  situations.  Flowers  in  June  and  July. 
Common  also  at  the  West. 

12.  CALAMAGROSTTS.       Reed  Bent  Grass. 

One-flowered  spikelets,  open  panicle,  contracted  or 
spiked ;  glumes  keeled,  about  equal  to  the  paleas, 
around  which,  at  the  base,  is  a  thick  tuft  of  white 
bristly  hairs ;  lower  pale  generally  with  a  slender  awn 
on  the  back ;  stamens  three  ;  grain  free. 

BLUE  JOINT  GRASS  (Calamagrostis  Canadensis}. — 
Stems  three  to  five  feet  high,  grayish ;  leaves  flat ; 
panicle  often  purplish ;  the  glumes  acute,  lanceolate  ; 
lower  palea  not  longer  than  the  very  fine  hairs,  bearing 
an  extremely  delicate  awn  below  the  middle,  nearly 
equal  to  the  hairs.  Flowers  in  July. 

Blue  Joint  Grass  is  very  common  on  low  grounds. 
It  is  generally  considered  a  valuable  grass,  and  is  eaten 
greedily  by  stock  in  the  winter,  being  thought  by  some 
to  be  nearly  as  nutritious  as  Timothy.  It  grows  so 
rank  and  luxuriant  on  soils  suited  to  it  that  an  immense 
crop  of  valuable  hay  is  often  made  from  it. 

CROWDED  CALAMAGROSTIS,  or  GLAUCOUS  SMALL  REED 
( Calamagrostis  coarctata),  is  also  somewhat  common  in 
our  wet  meadows,  open  swamps,  and  along  low  river 
banks.  Its  stems  are  from  three  to  five  feet  high ;  seed 
hairy,  crowned  with  a  bearded  tuft ;  lower  palea  shorter 


BEACH    GRASS.  49 

than  the  taper-pointed  tips  of  the  lanceolate  glumes, 
almost  twice  the  length  of  the  hairs,  with  a  rigid,  short 
awn  above  the  middle. 

CLOSE-FLOWERED  SMALL  REED  (Calamagrostis  inex- 
pansa)  appears  with  a  contracted  panicle,  longer  than 
that  of  the  preceding  species ;  stem  about  three  feet 
high,  erect;  leaves  smooth.  The  panicle  is  usually 
from  four  to  six  inches  long,  and  slender ;  the  lateral 
branches  short,  four  or  five  together,  rough.  This  is 
distinguished  from  the  last  by  a  more  slender  and  less 
crowded  panicle.  Flourishes  in  swamps  and  boggy 
places. 

ALPINE  REED  BENT  (Calamagrostis  Pickeringii)  is  a 
species  found  near  the  summit  of  the  White  Mountains, 
of  New  Hampshire.  Of  no  agricultural  value. 

PURPLE  BENT  (Calamagrostis  brevipilis)  is  a  species 
found  in  the  swamps  and  pine  barrens  of  New  Jersey. 

WOOLLY  BENT  (Calamagrostis  longifolia)  is  found 
along  the  sandy  shores  of  the  lakes  of  northern  Michi- 
gan, and  further  to  the  north-west.  Sheaths  clothed 
with.  wool. 

BEACH  GRASS,  SEA-SAND  REED,  MAT  GRASS  (Calama- 
grostis arenaria,  or  Ammophila  arundinacea],  Fig.  34, 
grows  to  the  height  of  two  or  three  feet,  with  a  rigid 
culm,  from  stout  roots  running  often  to  the  distance  of 
twenty  or  thirty  feet ;  leaves  wide,  rather  short,  of  a 
sea-green  color  ;  panicle  contracted  into  a  close,  dense 
spike,  from  six  to  twelve  inches  long,  nearly  white.  It 
is  found  in  the  sands  of  the  sea-shore,  where  its  thick, 
strong,  creeping,  perennial  roots,  with  many  tubers  the 
size  of  a  pea,  prevent  the  drifting  of  the  sand  from  the 
action  of  the  winds  and  waves,  thus  forming  a  barrier 
against  the  encroachments  of  the  ocean. 
5 


50         CULTURE  OF  BEACH  GRASS. 

This  grass  is  very  generally  diffused 
on  sea-coasts ''over  the  world,  and  is 
found  inland  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Su- 
perior. It  has  also  been  cultivated  by 
way  of  experiment,  and  with  success, 
on  the  sands  at  Lowell,  Massachusetts, 
and  still  further  up  on  the  banks  of  the 
Merrimack  River.  Though  not  culti- 
vated for  agricultural  purposes,  it  is  of 
great  value  in  protecting  sandy  beaches. 
It  is  preserved  in  England  and  Scot- 
land by  act  of  parliament.  Flowers  in 
August. 

In  the  year  1853, 1  was  requested  by 
the  late  T.  W.  Harris  to  make  this  grass 
a  special  study,  in  the  course  of  my  ob- 
servations ;  and  since  that  time  I  have 
tried,  by  personal  inquiries  and  by  cor- 
respondence, to  collect  whatever  there 
might  be  of  interest  in  relation  to  it. 
As  it  is  of  national  importance  in  pro- 
tecting our  sandy  coasts,  some  account 
of  its  culture  may  not  be  inappropriate 
or  uninteresting. 

The  town  of  Provincetown,  once 
called  Cape  Cod,  where  the  Pilgrims 
first  landed,  and  its  harbor,  still  called 
the  harbor  of  Cape  Cod,  —  one  of  the 
best  and  most  important  in  the  United 
States,  sufficient  in  depth  for  ships 
Fig.  at.'  Beach  Grass,  of  the  largest  size,  and  in  extent  to 
anchor  three  thousand  vessels  at  once, —  owe  their  pres- 
ervation to  this  grass.  To  an  inhabitant  of  an  inland 
country,  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  the  extent  and  the 
violence  with  which  the  sands  at  the  extremity  of  Cape 


ACTION    OF    DRIFTING    SAND.  51 

Cod  are  thrown  up  from  the  depths  of  the  sea,  and  left 
on  the  beach  in  thousands  of  tons,  by  every  driving 
storm.  These  sand-hills,  when  dried  by  the  sun,  are 
hurled  by  the  winds  into  the  harbor  and  upon  the  town. 
A  correspondent  at  Provincetown  says :  "  Beach  grass 
is  said  to  have  been  cultivated  here  as  early  as  1812. 
Before  that  time,  when  the  sand  drifted  down  upon  the 
dwelling-houses,  —  as  it  did  whenever  the  beach  was 
broken, —  to  save  them  from  burial,  the  only  resort  was 
to  wheeling  it  off  with  barrows.  Thus  tons  were  re- 
moved every  year  from  places  that  are  now  perfectly 
secure  from  the  drifting  of  sand.  Indeed,  were  it 
not  for  the  window-glass  in  some  of  the  oldest  houses 
in  these  localities,  you  would  be  ready  to  deny  this 
statement ;  but  the  sand  has  been  blown  with  such 
force  and  so  long  against  this  glass,  as  to  make  it  per- 
fectly ground.  I  know  of  some  windows  through  which 
you  cannot  see  an  object,  except  to  remind  you  of  that 
passage  where  men  were  seen  '  as  trees  walking.'  " 

Congress  appropriated,  between  the  years  1826  and 
1839,  about  twenty-eight  thousand  dollars,  which  were 
expended  in  setting  out  beach  grass  near  the  village 
of  Provincetown,  for  the  protection  of  the  harbor. 
From  the  seed  of  this  grass  it  is  estimated  that  nearly 
as  much  ground  has  become  planted  with  it  as  was  cov- 
ered by  the  national  government.  In  1854  five  thousand 
dollars  were  wisely  expended  by  the  general  govern- 
ment in  adding  to  the  work ;  and  the  experience  of 
former  years  was  of  great  value  to  the  efficiency  of  this 
latter  effort.  The  work  of  fortification  or  protection  is 
not  yet  complete.  The  eastern  part  of  the  harbor  is 
much  exposed  to  injury  from  the  sand,  which  now 
empties  itself  by  thousands  of  tons,  during  every  north 
wind,  into  it. 

"  It  may  be  proper  to  state,"  says  the  writer  quoted 


52  RAISING    THE    BEACH. 

above,  "  that  this  town  does  much  in  the  way  of  'beach- 
grassing'  by  its  'beach-grass  committee,'  whose  duty  it  is 
to  enter  any  man's  enclosure,  summer  or  winter,  and 
set  out  grass,  if  the  sand  is  uncovered  and  movable. 
By  this  means  we  are  now  rid  of  sand-storms,  which 
were  once  the  terror  of  the  place,  being  something  like 
snow-storms,  for  drifts,  which  were  to  be  removed. 
Our  streets  are  now  hardened  with  clay,  which  has 
been  imported ;  and,  instead  of  its  being  buried,  as  it 
would  once  have  been  in  a  few  days,  I  notice  that  the 
surveyors  have  to  resort  to  sprinkling  it  with  sand  in 
wet  weather,  so  effectually  has  the  culture  of  beach 
grass  answered  its  end. 

"  The  mode  of  culture  is  very  simple.  The  grass  is 
pulled  up  by  hand  and  placed  in  a  hole  about  a  foot 
deep,  and  the  sand  pressed  down  about  it.  These  holes 
are  dug  about  one  foot  and  a  half  apart.  The  spring  is 
the  usual  time  of  planting,  though  many  do  this  work 
in  the  fall  or  winter.  The  roots  of  the  grass,  from 
which  it  soon  covers  the  ground,  are  very  long.  I 
have  noticed  them  ten  feet,  and  I  suppose  upon  high 
hills  they  extend  down  into  wet  sand." 

Many  years  ago,  the  beach  which  connects  Truro 
and  Provincetown  was  broken  over,  and  a  considera- 
ble body  of  it  swept  away.  Beach  grass  was  imme- 
diately planted,  and  the  beach  was  thus  raised  to  suffi- 
cient height,  and  in  some  places  into  hills.  The  opera- 
tion of  it  is  like  that  of  brush  or  bushes,  cut  and  laid 
upon  the  ground,  in  accumulating  snow  in  a  drifting 
wind.  The  sand  is  collected  around  the  grass,  and,  as 
the  sand  rises,  the  grass  also  rises  to  overtop  it,  and 
will  continue  to  grow,  no  matter  how  high  the  sand-hill 
may  rise ;  and  this  process  goes  on  over  the  whole  sur- 
face of  the  plantation,  and  thus  many  acres  have  been 
raised  far  above  their  original  level. 


PROTECTED  BY  LAW.  53 

A  committee  of  the  Legislature,  appointed  in  1852,  to 
inquire  into  the  means  of  preserving  Cape  Cod  Harbor, 
in  speaking  of  the  beach  between  the  ocean  on  the 
north  and  the  channel  of  East  Harbor,  —  and  which  is 
all  that  prevents  the  sea  from  breaking  over  into  Cape 
Cod  Harbor, — say:  " This  tract  consists  of  loose  sand, 
driven  about  by  every  high  wind,  which  throws  it  up  in 
heaps  like  snow-drifts.  The  wind,  from  any  point  from 
north-east  to  north-west,  drives  the  sand  directly  from 
said  beach  into  the  channel  of  East  Harbor,  and  is  car- 
ried by  a  strong  current  into  the  north-east  part  of  Cape 
Cod  Harbor.  The  ocean  on  the  north  is  wasting  this 
narrow  beach  away  in  every  storm,  and  the  current  in 
East  Harbor  channel  undermining  and  destroying  it  on 
the  south.  The  decay  of  said  beach  has  been  on  the 
increase  for  several  years ;  it  has  narrowed  within 
seven  or  eight  years,  by  the  tide  that  runs  through 
East  Harbor  channel,  from  eight  to  ten  rods.  Where 
the  mail-stage  travelled  only  one  year  since,  is  now  the 
channel,  with  six  feet  of  water  at  low  tide,  and  from 
twelve  to  fourteen  feet  at  high  water." 

The  first  effort  made  by  the  state  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  this  important  harbor  appears  to  have  been  in 
1714.  The  town  was  incorporated  in  1727,  and  was  at 
that  time  a  place  of  some  extent ;  but  the  inhabitants 
soon  began  to  leave,  and  in  less  than  twenty  years 
it  was  reduced  to  two  or  three  families.  After  the 
Revolution  the  place  revived,  and  is  now  a  thriving 
town. 

The  object  of  the  law  of  1714  was  to  arrest  the 
destruction  of  the  trees  and  shrubbery  on  the  province 
lands,  and  on  the  preservation  of  which  it  was  thought 
the  harbor  depended,  as  they  prevented  the  drifting  of 
the  sand. 

In  1824  commissioners  were  appointed  by  the  state 
5* 


54  ANNUAL    PLANTING. 

government  to  examine  the  ->subject,  and  report  what 
action  was  necessary  to  prevent  the  rapid  destruction 
of  the  harbor.  They  recommended  an  act  to  prevent 
the  destruction  of  beach  grass,  and  reported  that  the 
sum  of  thirty-six  hundred  dollars  would  be  necessary 
to  set  out  that  plant,  make  fences,  &c.  The  Legisla- 
ture, in  1826,  applied  to  Congress  for  that  sum;  and  Con- 
gress has,  at  different  times,  made  appropriations  to  the 
amount  of  about  thirty-eight  thousand  dollars,  which 
Beem  to  have  failed  in  some  measure  to  accomplish 
the  object  intended,  and  East  Harbor  is  still  rapidly 
filling  up. 

Many  years  ago,  it  was  as  customary  to  warn  the 
inhabitants  of  Truro  and  some  other  towns  on  the 
Cape,  every  spring,  to  turn  out  to  plant  beach  grass, 
as  it  was  in  the  inland  towns  to  turn  out  and  mend  the 
roads.  This  was  required  by  law,  with  suitable  penal- 
ties for  its  neglect,  and  took  place  in  April. 

A  farmer,  of  much  practical  knowledge  of  this  sub- 
ject, says :  "  Since  the  cattle  have  been  kept  from  the 
beaches,  by  the  act  of  the  Legislature  of  1826,  the 
grass  and  shrubs  have  sprung  up  of  their  own  accord, 
and  have,  in  a  great  measure,  in  the  westerly  part  of 
the  Cape,  accomplished  what  was  intended  to  be  done 
by  planting  grass.  It  is  of  no  use  to  plant  grass  on 
the  high  parts  of  the  beach.  Plant  on  the  lowest  parts 
and  they  will  raise,  while  the  highest  places,  over  which 
the  grass  will  spread,  are  levelling  by  the  wind.  To 
preserve  the  beach,  it  must  be  kept  as  level  as  possible. 

"  Beach  grass  is  of  but  little  value  except  to  prevent 
our  loose,  sandy  beaches  from  being  drifted  about  by 
the  wind.  We  have  but  one  species,  and  this  is  fast 
spreading  over  our  upland,  making  it  useless  for  culti- 
vation. Land  that  would  produce  from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  bushels  of  Indian  corn  to  the  acre,  with- 


BLACK    MOUNTAIN    RICE.     •  55 

out  any  manure,  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  ago,  is  now 
overrun  with  beach  grass,  and  will  produce  nothing 
else.  If  the  dead  grass  is  burnt  off  in  the  spring,  it 
will  make  a  pretty  good  pasture  for  cattle  and  horses. 
It  keeps  green  longer  than  any  other  grass  we  have. 
It  can  be  cultivated  from  the  seed  or  by  transplanting. 
Our  loose,  sandy  beaches  are  the  most  suitable  for  its 
growth." 

Beach  grass  seems  to  require  the  assistance  of  some 
disturbing  causes  to  enable  it  to  attain  its  full  perfec- 
tion. The  driving  winds  in  some  localities  are  suffi- 
cient, while  in  other  places,  where  it  does  not  thrive 
so  well,  it  is  probable  that  an  iron-tooth  harrow  would 
greatly  improve  and  aid  its  growth.  It  has  been  exten- 
sively cultivated  or  propagated  from  the  seed  on  many 
parts  of  Cape  Cod,  on  Nantucket,  and  in  fact  to  con- 
siderable extent  all  along  our  coast.  It  comes  in  of 
itself  along  Nantasket  beach  from  seed  borne  by  the 
tides,  probably,  from  the  Cape.  It  has  been  extensively 
used,  at  times,  in  this  country,  for  the  manufacture  of 
coarse  paper,  though,  if  I  am  rightly  informed,  its  man- 
ufacture has  been  discontinued  in  Massachusetts.  In 
other  countries  it  is  manufactured  into  door-mats  and 
brushes,  mats  for  pack-saddles,  meal-bags,  and  hats,  and 
into  ropes  for  various  purposes. 

13.  ORYZOPSIS.          Mountain  Rice. 

Spikelets  greenish  and  rather  large,  one-flowered  ; 
glumes  several-nerved,  nearly  equal,  awnless,  longer 
than  the  oblong  flower;  scales  linear,  long  as  the  ovary; 
inflorescence  in  narrow  panicles. 

BLACK  MOUNTAIN  RICE  ( Oryzopsis  melanocarpa)  is  a 
common  grass  in  dry,  rocky  woods,  with  a  leafy  stem 
from  two  to  three  feet  high,  a  simple  panicle,  palese  or 
husks  of  the  seed  blackish  when  ripe,  the  lower  one 


56  WHITE    MOUNTAIN    RICE. 

surrounding  the  upper,  with  a  .straight  awn  at  the  tip, 
nearly  an  inch  long.  Stamens  three,  anthers  linear,  yel- 
low ;  styles  distinct.  Flowers  in  August.  Not  cultivated. 
WHITE  MOUNTAIN  RICE  (Oryzopsis  asperifolia)  is 
also  common  on  steep,  rocky  hillsides,  and  in  dry  woods. 
Stems  clasped  by  sheaths,  bearing  a  mere  rudimentary 
blade,  overtopped  by  the  long  and  rigid  linear  leaf  from 
the  base;  awn  two  or  three  times  the  length  of  the 
hairy  whitish  husks  or  palese.  Perennial,  growing  from 
a  foot  to  eighteen  inches  high.  The  lower  or  radical 
leaves  remain  green  through  the  winter.  The  large 
seeds  are  abundantly  farinaceous,  and  make  a  very  white 
and  fine  flour ;  but  the  grain  drops  so  easily  as  to  make 
it  impracticable  to  gather  it  in  large  quantities. 

SMALLEST  ORYZOPSIS,  or  CANADIAN  RICE  (Oryzopsis 
Canadensis],  is  another  species  sometimes  found.  These 
grasses  are  easily  distinguished  from  each  other.  The 
first  has  an  awn  thrice  the  length  of  the  blackish  palea; 
the  second,  an  awn  two  or  three  times  the  length  of  the 
whitish  palea;  the  third,  an  awn  short,  deciduous,  or 
wanting.  The  first  grows  from  two  to  three  feet  high  ; 
the  second,  from  ten  to  eighteen  inches;  the  third. 
from  six  to  fifteen  inches.  Natural  habitat,  dry,  rocky 
woods.  Perennial.  Not  cultivated. 

It  may  be  proper  to  remark,  in  passing,  that  many 
grasses  which  are  now  worthless,  or  of  no  known  value 
in  agriculture,  might  be  made  very  useful  to  cultivate 
for  the  purpose  of  turning  in  green  for  manure. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  many  of  the  rank  weeds 
which  are  now  regarded  as  the  pests  of  our  fields  and 
roadsides.  Some  of  them,  if  sown  on  winter  grains, 
would  spring  up  luxuriantly  after  the  grain  was  removed, 
drawing  much  of  their  nutriment  from  the  air,  and  cor- 
porifying  it,  as  it  were,  to  be  turned  in  while  still  green, 
with  the  stubble,  and  thus  add  vastly  to  the  fertility 


FEATHER    GRASS.  57 

and  productiveness  of  the  soil.  For  this  purpose  those 
kinds  which  produce  a  large  quantity  of  small  seeds, 
and  a  large,  luxuriant  growth  of  leaves,  are  best.  The 
perennials  might  be  sown  with  winter  grains,  the  an- 
nuals with  spring. 

The  practice  of  turning  in  green  crops  for  manure  is 
not  of  recent  origin.  Its  benefits  have  been  long 
known;  but  the  clovers,  buckwheat,  and  other  large- 
seeded  grasses,  have  generally  been  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. But  many  other  plants  offer  a  cheaper  substitute, 
since  their  seeds  are  smaller  and  less  expensive,  the 
only  cost,  indeed,  being  the  expense  of  gathering. 

14.  STIPA.  Feather  Grass. 

Spikelets  one-flowered ;  flowers  stipitate  or  borne  on 
a  slender  stalk  ;  glumes  equal,  membranaceous ;  pales 
longer  than  the  glumes,  thick,  and  leathery,  the  lower 
tipped  with  a  very  long  awn,  bent  above,  and  twisted  at 
the  base ;  seed-scale  rounded  or  cylindrical.  Inflores- 
cence in  spreading  panicles.  Perennial,  growing  from 
one  to  two  feet  high. 

FEATHER  GRASS  (Stipa pennata)  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  this  genus.  The  awn  of  the  floret  is  very 
long  and  feathery,  rising  from  the  summit  of  the  outer 
palea,  and  often  more  than  twenty  times  its  length,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  an  inch  at  the  base,  which  is 
twisted,  soft  and  feathery  through  its  whole  length. 
The  root  is  perennial  and  fibrous;  the  stem  erect,  round, 
smooth,  hollow,  from  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  high ; 
sheaths  of  the  leaves  roughish,  and  covering  the  joints. 
Stigmas  feathery. 

This  grass  is  well  known  for  its  great  beauty,  and  is 
cultivated  in  gardens,  and  gathered  for  vases  and  parlor 
ornaments.  It  grows  wild  in  many  parts  of  Germany, 
in  dry,  sandy  soils. 

RICHARDSON'S  FEATHER  (Stipa  Richardsonii]  is  a  spe- 


58 


BLACK    OAT    GRASS. 


cies  growing  wild  in  the  vicinity  of  Sebago  Lake,  in 
Maine,  and  some  other  places.  Glumes  nearly  equal, 
oblong;  panicle  loose,  slender  branches,  awn  of  the 
palea  twisted.  Of  no  agricultural  value. 

BLACK  OAT  GRASS  (Stipa  ave- 
nacea)  is  sometimes  met  with  in 
dry,  sandy  woods,  but  is  of  no 
agricultural  value.  It  rises  from 
one  to  two  feet ;  its  panicle  is 
open,  leaves  almost  bristle-form, 
palea  blackish,  nearly  as  long  as 
the  almost  equal  glumes ;  awn 
bent  above,  twisted  below. 

It  is  one  of  the  prairie  grasses 
of  Michigan,  Illinois,  Wisconsin, 
&c.}  and  is  common  at  the  South, 
flowering  in  June  and  July.  Fig. 
35  represents  the  panicle  of  this 
grass,  with  the  naked  glumes, 
while  the  upper  palea  and  its  bent 
and  twisted  awn  is  seen  in  Fig. 
36. 

PORCUPINE  GRASS  (Stipa  spar- 
tea)  has  a  shorter,  contracted  pan- 
icle, a  stouter  stem,  rising  from 
one  to  three  feet  high  :  glumes 
loose,  greenish,  slender,  pointed, 
longer  than  the  paleas ;  awn  strong 
and  twisted,  from  three  to  six 
inches  long,  downy  below,  and 
rough  above. 

This  is  another  prairie  grass  of 

Fig.  35.  Black  oat  Grass.  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  the  north-west- 
ward, and  is  also  a  native  of  southern  Europe  and  north- 
ern Africa.  It  is  not  a  cultivated  grass. 


TRIPLE    AWN    GRASSES.  59 

15.  ARISTIDA.      Three-awned  Grass. 

Flowers  stipitate  or  on  stalks ;  glumes  unequal,  often 
bristle-pointed;  palese  two,  lower  tipped  with  a  triple 
awn,  upper  smaller,  awnless ;  ovary  smooth,  scales  two, 
smooth,  entire ;  spikelets  in  simple  or  panicled  racemes 
or  spikes. 

POVERTY  GRASS  (Aristida  dicJiotoma)  is  known  by  its 
tufted  stems  or  culms  being  much  forked  or  branched, 
from  five  to  fifteen  inches  high.  Spikelets  small,  crowded 
in  short,  contracted  racemes  ;  side  awns  minute  ;  middle 
no  longer  than  the  palea,  bent  downwards.  Common  in 
old,  dry,  sterile  fields,  especially  at  the  South,  and  in 
Illinois  and  adjacent  states. 

THREE-AWNED  GRASS  (Aristida  ramosissima).  —  Stems 
diffuse ;  spiked  raceme  loosely  flowered ;  glumes  three 
to  five  nerved,  nearly  equalling  the  flower;  the  awn 
bent  back,  an  inch  long.  Found  on  dry  prairies  of 
Illinois,  and  in  Kentucky. 

SLENDER  THREE-AWNED  GRASS  (Aristida  gracilis)  is 
also  found  in  old,  sandy  fields,  dry,  sterile  hill-sides  and 
pine  barrens,  but  is  of  no  value  for  cultivation.  Its 
stem  is  slender  and  erect,  lateral  awns  as  long  as  the 
palea.  Never  found  except  on  the  poorest  soil. 

DOWNY  TRIPLE  AWN  (Aristida  stricta}.  —  Leaves 
straight,  erect,  rigid,  downy ;  lower  palea  smooth  ;  awns 
spreading,  the  middle  one  longest;  glumes  unequal,  short, 
pointed.  Perennial.  Grows  from  two  to  three  feet 
high,  in  rocky  and  shaded  places,  in  Michigan,  Illinois, 
Virginia,  and  southward.  Of  no  value  for  cultivation. 

PURPLE  TRIPLE  AWN  (Aristida  purpurascens)  has 
rough,  but  less  rigid  leaves;  lower  palea  rough,  with 
slender  lateral  nerves  ;  middle  awn  an  inch  long.  Com- 
mon from  Massachusetts  to  Illinois  and  southward. 


60  MARSH    GRASS. 

PRAIRIE  TRIPLE  AWN  (Aristida oligantha)  is  a  species 
found  by  Michaux  on  the  prairies  of  Illinois,  with  a 
straight,  erect  stem,  branching  below ;  spikelets  large, 
distant,  solitary,  alternate,  short-pedicelled ;  glumes 
equalling  the  flower;  awns  long,  the  lateral  a  little 
shorter  than  the  middle.  Found  also  in  Virginia  and 
to  the  south-westward. 

LONG-AWNED  POVERTY  GRASS  (Aristida  tuberculosa).  — 
Stem  branched  below,  tumid  at  the  joints ;  panicles 
loose,  branching  in  pairs,  one  of  which  is  short  and  two- 
flowered,  the  other  longer  and  several-flowered  ;  glumes 
longer  than  the  palea,  which  is  tipped  with  the  common 
stalk  of  the  three  bent  awns,  twisting  together  at  the 
base.  It  is  found  on  sandy  soils,  from  New  England  to 
Wisconsin.  It  is  one  of  the  prairie  grasses  ot  Illinois 
and  southward. 

16.  SPARTINA.  Marsh  Grass. 

Spikelets  one-flowered,  very  flat,  in  two  rows  on  the 
outer  side  of  a  triangular  rachis ;  glumes  compressed, 
keeled,  pointed  and  rough,  bristly  on  the  keel ;  stamens 
three ;  styles  long,  united. 

FRESH  WATER  CORD  GRASS,  or  TALL  MARSH  GRASS 
(Spartina  cynosuroides). — This  is  found  on  the  banks 
of  streams  and  lakes,  rising  to  the  height  of  from  two  to 
four  feet,  with  slender  culm,  narrow  leaves,  two  to  four 
feet  long,  tapering  to  a  point,  smooth  except  on  the 
margins ;  spikes  of  a  straw-color,  five  to  fourteen  in 
number,  spreading,  glumes  awn-pointed.  Found  in 
Wisconsin,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio,  Michigan,  and  Minne- 
sota. Flowers  in  August. 

THE  SALT  REED  GRASS  (Spartina  polystachya}  has  a 
stout  culm,  from  four  to  nine  feet  high ;  broad  leaves, 
loughish  underneath  and  on  the  margins ;  spikes  twenty 


TOOTHACHE    GRASS. — MUSKI.T.  61 

to  fifty  in  number,  forming  a  dense,  oblong,  purplish 
cluster.  It  is  found  on  salt  and  brackish  marshes,  be- 
low high  tide,  especially  southward. 

RUSH  SALT  GRASS  (Spartina  juncea)  grows  from  one 
to  two  feet  high,  stem  slender,  leaves  narrow,  rush-like, 
and  very  smooth.  It  is  common  on  salt  marshes  and 
sandy  sea-beaches,  and  flowers  in  August. 

SALT  MARSH  GRASS  (Spartina  stricta)  grows  from  one 
to  three  feet  high,  leafy  to  the  top,  and  has  from  two 
to  four  spikes.  Glumes  pointed,  very  unequal.  Salt 
marshes,  Pennsylvania  and  South. 

ROUGH  MARSH  GRASS  (Spartina  glabra),  a  variety  of 
the  last,  is  found  commonly  on  the  sea-coast  from  New 
England  southward,  with  stem  and  leaves  rather  longer 
than  the  preceding,  and  spikelets  from  five  to  twelve, 
crowded. 

SMOOTH  MARSH  GRASS  (Spartina  alterniflora],  another 
variety  of  salt-marsh  grass,  with  spikes  more  slender, 
three  to  five  inches  long.  It  has  a  strong  and  rancid 
odor,  and  is  common  with  the  last. 

17.  CTENIUM.         Toothache  Grass. 

Glumes  persistent,  lower  one  smaller,  upper  concave 
below,  with  a  stout  awn  bent  like  a  horn  on  the  back. 
Flowers  four  to  six,  all  neutral  but  one.  Stamens  three. 

TOOTHACHE  GRASS  ( Ctenium  Americanum)  rises  from 
three  to  four  feet  high,  with  a  simple  roughish  stem ; 
longer  glume  warty  and  awned.  It  is  found  in  the  wet 
pine  barrens  of  New  Jersey,  but  is  of  no  agricultural 
value. 

18.  BOUTELOUA.        Gramma  Grass. 
Spikes   short,  solitary,  racemed ;    spikelets  alternate, 
two  to  three  flowered,  the  terminal  flower  imperfect. 
6 


62  MUSKIT.  —  BEARD  GRASS. 

Glumes  two,  keeled,  the  upper  layer  shorter  than  the 
flowers.  Stamens  three,  anthers  orange  or  red.  Rachis 
extending  beyond  the  spikelets. 

MUSKIT,  MESQUIT,  or  MEZQUITE  GRASS  (Bouteloua 
oligostachya),  grows  from  six  to  twelve  inches  high, 
leaves  narrow,  spikes  one  to  five  ;  glumes  and  lower 
fertile  palea  slightly  hairy,  triple  awned.  Westward, 
Iowa  and  Minnesota. 

BRISTLY  MUSKIT  (Bouteloua  hirsuta)  grows  in  tufts 
from  eight  to  twenty  inches  high ;  leaves  flat,  lance- 
like,  hairy  ;  lower  glume  rough,  with  stiff  hairs  from 
dark  warty  glands  ;  lower  palea  downy. 

HAIRY  MUSKIT  (Bouteloua  curtipendula}  grows  in 
tufts  from  perennial  roots,  one  to  three  feet  high ; 
sheaths  often  hairy,  leaves  narrow,  spikes  thirty  to 
sixty  in  number,  flowers  rough;  the  sterile  are  reduced 
to  a  single  small  awn,  or  to  three  awns  shorter  than  the 
fertile  flower. 

Muskit  or  Mesquit  grass  is  cultivated  to  considerable 
extent  in  some  parts  of  the  South,  as  in  Louisiana,  and 
has  become  a  favorite  grass  in  many  sections.  Very 
satisfactory  experiments  with  it  have  also  been  made 
in  Virginia. 

19.  GYMNOPOGON.  Beard  Grass. 

Spikelets  one-flowered,  perfect,  with  a  rudiment  of 
a  second  ;  glumes  awl-shaped,  keeled,  nearly  equal  ; 
stamens  three  ;  stigmas  purple,  pencil-shaped  ;  leaves 
short,  flat,  and  thick. 

NAKED  BEARD  GRASS  (Gymnopogon  raccmosus)  grows 
in  clusters,  wiry,  leafy,  spikes  flower-bearing  to  the 
base  ;  glumes  pointed  about  half  the  length  of  the  awn 
of  the  fertile  flower.  Common  on  the  pine  barrens  of 
New  Jersey,  and  at  the  South. 


BERMUDA     GRASS.  —  EGYPTIAN    GRASS.  63 

SHORT-LEAVED  BEARD  GRASS  (Gymnopogon  brevifolius}. 

—  Spikes  on  long  stalks,  flower-bearing  only  above  the 
middle ;    lower    palea    short-awned ;    glumes    pointed. 
Found  in  Delaware  and  southward. 

20.    CYNODON.        Bermuda  Grass. 

Spikelets  one-flowered,  spikes  usually  digitate  at  the 
naked  summit  of  the  flowering  stalks  ;  glumes  keeled, 
pointless  ;  palese  pointless  and  awnless,  the  lower  and 
longer  boat-shaped.  Stamens  three.  Creeping  peren- 
nials. 

BERMUDA  GRASS,  SCUTCH  GRASS  ( Cynodon  dactylori). 

—  Glumes   very  nearly    equal ;     spikes   four   to   five ; 
pales  smooth;  stems  smooth,  hollow,  prostrate  at  the 
base,  with  four  or  five  leaves,  flat  or  folded,  acute, 
rigid,  hairy,  rough  at  the  edges ;  lower  joints  covered 
by  the  sheaths;    inflorescence  digitate,  purplish:    sta- 
mens three ;  stigmas  feathery.    Penn.  and  southward. 

This  grass  is  distinguished  from  Digitariain  the  spike- 
lets,  which  are  laterally  compressed,  and  in  rising  singly 
from  the  rachis,  and  by  wanting  the  ligule.  In  Digitaria 
the  spikelets  rise  from  the  rachis  in  twos  or  threes,  and 
the  ligule  is  very  distinct. 

It  grows  abundantly  on  the  West  India  Islands,  and 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States,  where  it  is 
esteemed  as  a  very  valuable  grass. 

21.  DACTYLOCTENIUM.     Egyptian  Grass. 

Spikelets  several-flowered,  crowded  on  one  side  of 
the  flattened  rachis,  forming  two  to  five  close,  comb- 
like  spikes,  digitate  at  the  apex ;  glumes  compressed  and 
keeled,  the  upper  one  awned  ;  stamens  three. 

EGYPTIAN  GRASS  (D adyloctenium  JEgyptiacum),  the 
only  species  referred  to  this  genus,  is  found  in  culti- 
vated fields  and  yards  in  Virginia  and  southward. 
Stems  diffuse,  often  creeping  at  the  base  ;  spikes  four 


64  CROP    GRASS. 

or  five  ,  leaves  hairy  at  the  base.  It  is  a  trouble- 
some annual  weed,  introduced  from  Europe.  Found 
also  in  Illinois. 

22.  ELEUSINE.  Crop  Grass. 

Spikelets  two  to  six  flowered,  overlapping  each  other 
in  close  spikes  on  one  side  of  a  flattish  rachis;  spikes  dig- 
itate, clustered ;  glumes  awnless  and  pointless ;  stamens 
three  ;  palea  awnless  and  pointless. 

CROP  GRASS,  CRAB  GRASS,  WIRE  GRASS,  CROW'S-FOOT 
(Eleusine  Indica). — Stems  ascending,  flattened,  branch- 
ing at  the  base ;  spikes  two  to  five,  greenish. 

This  is  an  annual,  and  flowers  through  the  season, 
growing  from  eight  to  fifteen  inches  high,  and  forming  a 
fine  green  carpeting  in  lawns  and  yards.  It  is  indige- 
nous in  Mississippi,  Alabama,  and  adjoining  states,  and 
serves  for  hay,  grazing,  and  turning  under  as  a  fertilizer. 
It  grows  there  with  such  luxuriance,  in  many  sections,  as 
never  to  require  sowing,  and  yields  a  good  crop  where 
many  of  the  more  northern  grasses  would  fail. 

23.  LEPTOCHLOA.         Slender  Grass. 

Spikelets  three  to  many  flowered,  loosely  spiked  on 
one  side  of  a  long,  thread-like  rachis ;  glumes  membra- 
naceous,  keeled,  sometimes  awl-pointed  ;  lower  palea 
three-nerved,  and  larger  than  the  upper.  Stamens  two 
or  three. 

POINTED  SLENDER  GRASS  (Leptocliloa  mucronata)  is  an 
annual,  growing  from  two  to  three  feet  high,  and  flow- 
ering in  August.  Sheaths  hairy ;  spikes  from  twenty 
to  forty,  two  to  four  inches  long,  in  a  long  panicle-like 
raceme  ;  glumes  pointed,  about  equalling  the  three  or 
four  awnless  flowers.  Found  in  fields  from  Virginia  to 
Illinois,  and  southward. 

CLUSTERING  SLENDER  GRASS  (Leptocliloa  fascicularis). 
—  Spikelets  seven  to  eleven  flowered,  longer  than  the 


TALL    REDTOP.  65 

glumes,  smooth  ;  leaves  longer  than  the  bent  branch- 
ing stems,  which  are  from  eight  to  fifteen  inches  long, 
the  upper  sheath  forming  the  base  of  the  panicle-like 
raceme  ;  paleas  hairy,  margined  towards  the  base,  the 
lower  having  two  small  lateral  teeth,  and  an  awn  at  the 
cleft  of  the  apex. 

Found  in  brackish  marshes  on  the  coast  from  Rhode 
Island  southward,  and  from  Illinois  southward  on  the 
Mississippi  River.  Flowers  in  August. 

24.  TRICUSPIS. 

Spikelets  three  to  twelve  flowered  ;  glumes  unequal ; 
rachis  of  the  spike  bearded  below  each  flower;  lower 
palea  much  larger  than  the  upper;  convex,  hairy  on  the 
back,  three-nerved,  and  three-pointed  by  the  projection 
of  the  nerves;  stamens  three  ;  stigmas  dark  purple. 

TALL  REDTOP  ( Tricuspis  seslerioides)  is  a  perennial, 
growing  from  three  to  five  feet  high,  on  dry  and  sandy 
fields,  from  New  York  to  Illinois,  and  southward,  flow- 
ering in  August.  It  is  a  showy  grass,  with  an  upright, 
very  smooth  stem,  smooth  leaves,  and  large  compound 
spreading  panicle ;  spikelets  very  numerous ;  shining, 
purple  flowers,  hairy  towards  the  base.  It  has  some- 
times been  cut  for  hay,  but  is  not  considered  of  much 
value. 

SAND  GRASS  (Tricuspis  purpurea)  is  also  found  on' 
dry,  sandy  soils,  along  the  coast,  flowering  in  August 
and  September.  It  is  acid  to  the  taste,  grows  from  six 
inches  to  a  foot  high,  in  numerous  stems,  in  a  tuft  from 
the  same  root,  and  has  numerous  bearded  joints.  Ex- 
tends southward  from  Massachusetts  to  Virginia,  and 
still  further  down  the  coast. 

HORNED  SAND  GRASS  (Tricuspis  cornuta)  is  another 
species  found  at  the  South.     Of  no  agricultural  value. 
6* 


66  TWIN  GRASS. 

25.  DU^ONTIA. 

Spikelets  two  to  four  flowered ;  glumes  nearly  equal- 
ling the  flowers,  with  a  cluster  of  long  hairs  at  the  base 
of  each  flower.  Palese  thin,  lower  one  entire,  point- 
less ;  stamens  three  ;  perennial.  Mostly  arctic  grasses. 

DUPONTIA  GRASS  (Dupontia  cooleyi)  is  a  tall  grass, 
with  roughish  leaves;  a  large  compound  panicle;  very 
unequal  glumes ;  palea  awnless.  Found  in  Michigan, 
in  the  borders  of  a  swamp  in  Washington,  Macomb 
county.  Of  no  agricultural  value. 

26.   DlARRHENA. 

Spikelets  two  to  ten  flowered,  in  an  open  panicle  ; 
glumes  much  shorter  than  the  flowers,  the  lower  much 
smaller ;  lower  palea  egg-shaped,  convex  on  the  back, 
three-nerved  above,  sharp-pointed  ;  stamens  two.  Grain 
large. 

TWIN  GRASS  (Diarrhena  Americana)  grows  from  one 
and  a  half  to  three  feet  high,  along  the  shaded  banks 
of  rivers  and  woods,  from  Ohio  and  Illinois  southwards. 
Flowering  in  August. 

27.  DACTYLIS.  Cock'sfoot. 

Spikelets  several-flowered,  crowded  in  clusters,  one- 
sided ;  panicle  dense  at  the  top,  branching ;  glumes 
two  ;  herbaceous,  keeled  ;  awn  pointed  ;  stamens  three  ; 
seed  oblong,  acute,  free.  Named  from  daclylus,  a  finger. 

ORCHARD  GRASS,  ROUGH  COCK'S-FOOT  (Dactylis  glom- 
erata),  flowers  in  dense  clusters.  Its  stem  is  erect, 
about  three  feet  high.  I  have  found  specimens,  in  good 
soil,  over  five  feet  high.  Leaves  linear,  flat,  dark-green, 
rough  on  both  surfaces,  which,  with  the  fancied  resem- 
blance of  its  clusters  to  the  foot  of  a  barn-yard  fowl, 
have  given  it  the  common  name  in  England  of  rough 


OECHABD    GRASS. 


67 


cock's-foot.  Root  perennial.  Flowers  in  June  and 
July.  Not  uncommon  in  fields  and  pastures.  It  is 
shown  in  Fig.  37,  and  a  magnified  spikelet  in  Fig.  38. 


Kg.  38. 


JFig.  37.    Orchard  G 


68        ORCHARD   GRASS. — ITS   CULTIVATION. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  and  widely-known 
of  all  the  pasture  grasses.  It  is  common  to  every 
country  in  Europe,  to  the  north  of  Africa,  and  to  Asia, 
as  well  as  to  America.  Its  culture  was  introduced  into 
England  from  Virginia,  where  it  had  been  cultivated 
some  years  previously,  in  1764.  It  forms  one  of  the 
most  common  grasses  of  English  natural  pastures,  on 
rich,  deep,  moist  soils.  It  became,  soon  after  its  intro- 
duction into  England,  an  object  of  special  agricultural 
interest  among  cattle  feeders,  having  been  found  to  be 
exceedingly  palatable  to  stock  of  all  kinds.  Its  rapidity 
of  growth,  the  luxuriance  of  its  aftermath,  and  its  power 
of  enduring  the  cropping  of  cattle,  commend  it  highly 
to  the  farmer's  care,  especially  as  a  pasture  grass. 

As  it  blossoms  earlier  than  Timothy,  and  about  the  time 
of  red  clover,  it  makes  an  admirable  mixture  with  that 
plant,  to  cut  in  the  blossom  and  cure  for  hay.  As  a 
pasture  grass  it  should  be  fed  close,  both  to  prevent  its 
forming  thick  tufts  and  to  prevent  its  running  to  seed, 
when  it  loses  a  large  proportion  of  its  nutritive  matter, 
and  becomes  hard  and  wiry.  All  kinds  of  stock  eat  it 
greedily  when  green. 

Judge  Buel  said  of  it,  "  I  should  prefer  it  to  almost 
every  other  grass,  and  cows  are  very  fond  of  it." 
Elsewhere  he  says :  "  The  American  Cock's-foot,  or 
Orchard  Grass,  is  one  of  the  most  abiding  grasses  we 
have.  It  is  probably  better  adapted  than  any  other 
grass  to  sow  with  clover  and  other  seeds  for  permanent 
pasture  or  for  hay,  as  it  is  fit  to  cut  with  clover,  and 
grows  remarkably  quick  when  cropped  by  cattle.  Five 
or  six  days'  growth  in  summer  suffices  to  give  a  good 
bite.  Its  good  properties  consist  in  its  early  and  rapid 
growth,  and  its  resistance  of  drouth  ;  but  all  agree  that 
it  should  be  closely  cropped.  Sheep  will  pass  over 
every  other  grass  to  feed  upon  it.  If  suffered  to  grow 


PRACTICAL    OPINIONS.  69 

long  without  being  cropped,  it  becomes  coarse  and 
harsh.  Colonel  Powell  (a  late  eminent  farmer  of  Penn- 
sylvania), after  growing  it  ten  years,  declares  that  it 
produces  more  pasturage  than  any  other  grass  he  has 
seen  in  America.  On  being  fed  very  close,  it  has  pro- 
duced good  pasture  after  remaining  five  days  at  rest. 
It  is  suited  to  all  arable  soils.  Two  bushels  of  seed  are 
requisite  for  an  acre  when  sown  alone,  or  half  this 
quantity  when  sown  with  clover.  The  seed  is  very 
light,  weighing  not  more  than  twelve  or  fourteen 
pounds  to  the  bushel.  It  should  be  cut  early  for  hay." 

Mr.  Sanders,  a  well-known  practical  farmer  and  cattle 
breeder,  of  Kentucky,  says  of  it:  "  My  observation  and 
experience  have  induced  me  to  rely  mainly  on  orchard 
grass  and  red  clover ;  indeed,  I  now  sow  no  other  sort 
of  grass-seed.  These  grasses,  mixed,  make  the  best  hay 
of  all  the  grasses  for  this  climate  (Kentucky).  It  is 
nutritious,  and  well  adapted  as  food  for  stock.  Orchard 
grass  is  ready  for  grazing  in  the  spring  ten  or  twelve 
days  sooner  than  any  other  that  affords  a  full  bite. 
When  grazed  down  and  the  stock  turned  off,  it  will  be 
ready  for  re-grazing  in  less  than  half  the  time  required 
for  Kentucky  blue  grass.  It  stands  a  severe  drought 
better  than  any  other  grass,  keeping  green  and  growing 
when  other  sorts  are  dried  up.  In  summer  it  will 
grow  more  in  a  day  than  blue  grass  will  in  a  week. 
Orchard  grass  is  naturally  disposed  to  form  and  grow 
in  tussocks.  The  best  preventive  is  a  good  preparation 
of  the  ground,  and  a  sufficiency  of  seed  uniformly  sown. 
The  late  Judge  Peters,  of  Pennsylvania,  —  who  was  at 
the  head  of  agricultural  improvement  in  that  state  for 
many  years,  —  preferred  it  to  all  other  grasses." 

Orchard  grass  is  less  exhausting  to  the  soil  than  rye 
grass  or  Timothy.  It  will  endure  considerable  shade. 
In  a  porous  subsoil  its  fibrous  roots  extend  to  a  great 


70  K03LERIA    EATONIA. 

depth.  Its  habit  of  growth  unfits  it  for  a  lawn  grass. 
Its  seed  weighs  twelve  pounds  to  the  bushel,  and,  to 
sow  alone,  about  twenty-four  pounds  to  the  acre  are 
required  to  make  sure  of  a  good  crop.  It  should  not 
be  sown  alone  except  for  the  sake  of  raising  the  seed. 
It  is  worthy  of  a  much  more  extended  cultivation 
among  us. 

28.  KOBLERIA. 

Spikelets  crowded  in  a  dense,  spike-like  panicle,  three 
to  seven  flowered.  Glumes  and  lower  palea  compressed, 
keeled ;  stamens  three  ;  grain  free. 

CRESTED  KCELERIA  (Koderia  cristata]  is  a  perennial 
grass  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  feet  high,  and  some- 
what common  on  dry,  gravelly  places  from  Pennsylvania 
to  Illinois  and  westward.  Panicle  narrowly  spiked ; 
lower  palea  pointed  j  leaves  flat,  the  lower  ones  some- 
what hairy. 

TRUNCATED  KCELERTA  (Koderia  truncata)  has  a  dense 
and  contracted  panicle,  with  the  spikelets  crowded  on 
the  short  branches ;  upper  glume  truncate,  obtuse, 
rough  on  the  back.  Perennial ;  growing  from  two  to 
three  feet  high,  and  flowering  in  June,  on  dry  soils 
from  Pennsylvania  to  Wisconsin,  and  southward. 

29.  EATONIA. 

Glumes  nearly  equal,  but  dissimilar,  and  shorter  than 
the  flowers ;  the  lower  one-nerved,  keeled  ;  the  upper 
three-nerved  on  the  back,  not  keeled.  Lower  palea 
oblong,  compressed,  boat-shaped  ;  stamens  three. 

PENNSYLVANIAN  EATONTA  (Eatonia  Pennsylvanica)  is  a 
common  grass  in  moist  woods  and  meadows,  in  the 
Eastern,  Middle,  and  Western  States  ;  growing  about 
two  feet  high,  perennial,  and  flowering  in  June  and 


RATTLESNAKE    GRASS.  71 

July.     Its  panicle  is  long  and  loose  ;  leaves  short  and 
flat,  and  of  a  pale-green  color. 

30.  MELICA.  Melic  Grass. 

Spikelets  from  two  to  five  flowered  ;  one,  and  some- 
times two  or  three  of  the  upper  flowers  imperfect  and 
dissimilar,  wrapped  around  each  other.  Glumes  usually 
large,  convex,  obtuse  ;  stamens  three. 

MELIC  GRASS  (Melica  mutica)  is  a  grass  natural  to  the 
rich  soils  of  the  Western  States,  Ohio,  Illinois,  and  Wis- 
consin, and  grows  with  a  loose,  smooth,  simple  panicle, 
from  two  to  four  feet  high  ;  glumes  unequal ;  two  fer- 
tile flowers.  It  is  perennial,  and  flowers  in  June. 

31.  GLYCERIA.  Manna  Grass. 

Spikelets  rounded ;  rachis  separating  into  joints ; 
glumes  two,  pointless,  nearly  equal ;  palese  awnless,  the 
lower  rounded  on  the  back  ;  five  to  seven  nerved  ;  sta- 
mens three  ;  root  creeping,  perennial.  Glyceria  from 
a  Greek  word,  signifying  sweet,  from  the  taste  of  the 
grain. 

KATTLESNAKE  GRASS  ( Glyceria  Canadensis)  has  an  ob- 
long, pyramidal,  spreading  panicle,  with  beautifully 
drooping  spikelets,  six  or  eight  flowered,  and  long, 
roughish  leaves,  which  together  make  it  an  object  of 
interest  and  search  for  bouquets  and  vases ;  resembling 
the  quaking  grass  in  general  appearance.  It  is  very 
common  in  wet,  boggy  places,  growing  from  two  to 
three  feet  high,  but  possesses  little  or  no  agricultural 
value.  Found  common  in  New  England  and  the  West- 
ern States,  in  soils  suitable  to  its  growth.  Flowers  in 
July. 

The  OBTUSE  SPEAR  GRASS  (Glyceria  obtusa)  has  a 
dense,  narrowly  oblong  panicle  ;  spikelets  six  or  seven 
flowered,  erect,  swelling;  lower  palea  obtuse,  leaves 


MEADOW    SPEAR    GKASS. 


41.      Fig.  42.      Fig  39.     Meadow  Spear  Grass. 


MEADOW    SPEAE    GEASS.  73 

smooth,  as  long  as  the  stem.  This  is  an  aquatic  grass, 
found  occasionally  on  the  borders  of  ponds  from  New 
England  to  Pennsylvania,  near  the  coast.  Flowers  in 
August.  Of  no  agricultural  value. 

LONG  PANICLED  MANNA  GEASS  ( Glyceria  elongata)  is  a 
very  distinct  species ;  stems  one  to  three  feet  high ; 
panicle  branching,  narrowly  elongated,  recurving ;  the 
branches  appressed ;  spikelets  pale,  erect,  three  to  four 
flowered ;  lower  palea  obtuse,  rather  longer  than  the 
upper;  stamens  two,  stigmas  compound,  leaves  very 
long  and  rough.  Flourishes  in  wet  woods  and  swamps 
from  New  England  to  Michigan,  and  northward.  Flow- 
ers in  June  and  July;  perennial.  Of  no  special  agri- 
cultural value. 

MEADOW  SPEAR  GEASS,  NEEVED  MANNA  GEASS  (Gly- 
ceria nervata),  is  the  fowl  meadow  of  many  farmers, 
while  the  grass  commonly  called  fowl  meadow  by  others 
(Poa  serotina)  often  goes  with  them  under  the  name 
of  bastard  fowl  meadow.  It  has  a  broad,  open  panicle, 
often  six  inches  in  length,  with  slender  branches  ;  spike- 
lets  small,  ovate,  oblong,  green ;  leaves  in  two  rows 
like  a  fan,  a  little  rough  ;  stem  a  little  compressed,  one 
to  three  feet  high. 

It  is  a  native  American  grass,  the  nutritive  value  of 
which,  according  to  Sinclair,  is  equal  at  the  time  of  flow- 
ering and  when  the  seed  is  ripe,  while  the  nutritive  matter 
of  the  lattermath  is  said  to  be  greater  than  that  of  most 
other  grasses.  It  is  a  hardy  grass,  grows  best  on  moist 
ground,  but  it  is  said  also  to  succeed  on  lightish  upland 
soils.  It  is  a  very  valuable  native  grass,  retaining  ita 
nutritive  qualities  until  the  seed  is  ripe,  and  then  sending 
up  large,  fan-like  shoots,  which  are  succulent  and  nutri- 
tious. It  would  be  a  valuable  ingredient  in  a  mixture 
for  wet  or  moist  pastures.  Common.  It  is  seen  in  Fig. 
7  • 


74 


PALE    MANNA    GRASS. 


39,  while  in  Fig.  40  are  seen  its  root  stalks.   A  magnified 
spikelet  is  shown  in  Fig.  41,  an'd  the  calyx  in  Fig.  42. 


Fig.  43.     Water  Spear  Grass.  Fijr.  44. 

The  PALE  MANNA  GRASS  (Glyceria  pallidd]  grows 
mostly  in  shallow  water,  and  is  very  common.     Panicle 


WATER    SPEAR    GRASS.  75 

erect,  with  hairy  branches,  spreading,  rough  ;  spikelets 
few,  linear,  oblong,  five  to  nine  flowered  ;  lower  palea 
oblong, m'mutely  five-toothed;  leaves  short, sharp-pointed, 
and  pale-green.  Flowers  in  July.  Culms  one  to  three 
feet  long,  creeping  at  the  base. 

Pale  manna  grass  is  of  no  value  for  cultivation,  since, 
from  the  place  of  its  growth,  it  could  hardly  be  used 
to  advantage,  like  many  other  grasses  which  are  now 
worthless,  for  turning  in  green  as  a  manure.  The  rank, 
leafy  grasses,  many  of  which  are  regarded  as  weeds, 
would  be  more  suitable  for  the  purpose. 

The  WATER  SPEAR  GRASS,  or  REED  MEADOW  GRASS 
( Glyceria  aquatica),  grows  in  wet  soils  and  the  shallow 
water  of  marshes.  It  is  a  tall,  reedy  grass,  four  or  five 
feet  high,  with  a  panicle  nearly  a  foot  long,  diffuse,  with 
smooth,  flexuous  branches.  Shown  in  Fig.  43.  From 
its  large  size  and  broad  leaves  it  can  hardly  be  mistaken 
for  any  of  the  other  species  of  this  genus,  or  of  any  of 
the  genus  Poa,  to  which  it  is  referred  by  Linmeus  and 
others.  Its  root -is  perennial,  creeping;  stem  erect, 
stout,  smooth ;  joints  seven,  smooth ;  spikelets  numer- 
ous. Florets  not  webbed.  Flowers  in  August. 

This  grass  has  been  cultivated  to  some  extent  in 
England  and  France  for  its  large  yield  of  coarse  hay  ; 
and,  if  cut  while  green  and  before  attaining  its  full 
growth,  it  is  said  to  make  a  nutritious  and  palatable 
fodder,  cattle  being  fond  of  it.  Its  spikelet  is  seen 
magnified  in  Fig.  44. 

It  is  worthy  of  trial  on  wet  meadows,  as  it  would 
certainly  be  more  valuable  than  the  coarse  sedges  often 
found  there.  It  is  common  North  and  West. 

The  FLOATING  MEADOW  GRASS,  or  COMMON  MANNA 
GRASS  ( Glyceria  fiuitans),  differs  from  the  other  species 
of  this  genus  in  the  general  appearance  of  its  slender 


7G 


FLOATING  MEADOW  GEASS. 


panicle,  and  long,  linear  spikelets.  It  grows  from  fifteen 
inches  to  two  feet  high,  with  a  perennial,  creeping  root, 
erect,  round,  smooth  stem,  leaves  large,  rather  long, 
roughish  on  both  sides,  lower 
ones  flat,  upper  ones  generally 
folded;  spikelets  few, long  and 
linear,  as  shown  in  Fig.  45, 
which  represents  the  plant 
near  the  time  of  flowering. 
Fig.  46  shows  a  magnified 
spikelet  of  this  grass.  Flow- 
ers late  in  June. 

It  grows  naturally  in  very 
moist  and   muddy  places,  in 
ditches,  on   the    margins    of 
ponds  and  streams,  and  is  very 
common,  especially  northward 
and  westward.     It  is  capable 
of    cultivation    as   a    perma- 
nent moist  pasture  grass,  and 
its  yield    compares  well  with 
many  of  the  other  grass- 
es.  Its  seeds  are  greed- 
ily sought  by  birds,  and 
in  some  parts  of  Ger- 
many are  said  to  be  used 
as  a  delicacy  in  soups 
and  gruels.  It  has  some- 
times been  cultivated  in 
France  and  other  parts 
of  Europe,  along  alluvial 
borders  of  streams  and 
lakes,  and  is  found  to 
produce   a    sweet    and 
nutritious   grass.      The 


Fig.  45.     Floating  Meadow  G 


Fig.  46. 


GOOSE    GRASS. 


77 


seed  has  sometimes  been  ground  into  meal,  or  flour.  It 
would  doubtless  be  valuable  to  sow  for  green  manuring. 
POINTED  SPEAR  GRASS  (Glyceria  acutiflora]  is  less 
common  than  the  preceding  species.  It  is  found  in  wet 
places  from  New  England  to  Pennsylvania,  resembling 
the  floating  manna  grass,  but  with  small- 
er leaves,  and  flowers  twice  the  length, 
and  less  nerved. 

GOOSE  GRASS,  CREEPING  SEA  MEADOW 
GRASS,  SEA  SPEAR  GRASS  (Glyceria  mari- 
tima),  Fig.  47,  is  a  beautiful  grass,  which 
appears    in   and   around   salt    marshes, 
growing  from  six  to  twelve  inches  high, 
and  having  a  perennial,  creeping  root. 
Stem  erect,  round,  smooth;  leaves  most- 
ly folded  and  compressed,  roughish  on 
the  inner  surface  ;  spikelets  linear,  with 
from  six  to  ten  florets,  not  webbed,  the 
outer  palea  or  lower  floret  terminating 
in  an  acute  point.      The  flower  is  seen 
in  Fig.  48.  Flowers  in  July.    Grows  nat- 
urally near  the  sea.     This  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  of  the  salt-marsh  grasses, 
being  exceedingly  relished  by  stock  of 
all  kinds.    It  is  generally 
considered  best  when  it 
grows   in   mixture  with 
other  species  of  plants, 
as  the  black  grass  (Jun- 
cusbulbosus),  for  instance, 
and  deserves  a  passing 
notice. 

It'is  very  well  known 
that  large  tracts  of  salt 


Fig,  47.     Goose  Grass. 


Fig.  48. 


78    GEOWTH  AND  VALUE  OF  GOOSE  GRASS. 

marsh  are  nearly  barren.  Sometimes  close  cutting  in  the 
early  morning,  while  the  dew  is  on  the  grass  and  when  it 
cuts  comparatively  easy,  kills  it  out,  and  from  that  cause 
the  marsh  becomes  barren.  More  often,  however,  excess 
of  water,  either  upon  the  surface  or  in  the  soil,  from  the 
proximity  of  ponds  which  have  no  outlet,  causes  barren- 
ness. On  all  such  tracts  goose  grass  springs  up  and  dots 
the  whole  surface  with  circular  patches  of  green,  which 
in  shape  are  very  like  ringworms  on  the  human  skin. 

This  valuable  grass  is  seldom  found  alone  except  on 
these  barren  tracts,  and  upon  them  it  grows  so  short 
and  thin  as  seldom  to  be  worth  cutting.  One  will  there- 
fore never  see  any  goose-grass  hay  except  mixed  with 
other  kinds,  and  generally  with  black  grass. 

When  these  tracts  begin  to  improve,  from  draining  or 
from  any  other  cause,  other  grasses  make  their  appear- 
ance, and  the  goose  grass  grows  much  more  vigorous, 
and  becomes  valuable.  This  will  continue  to  be  the 
case  for  several  years,  until  the  roots  of  the  other 
grasses  have  taken  entire  possession  of  the  soil,  when 
the  goose  grass  disappears  almost  entirely,  and  bides  its 
time,  ready  to  appear  again  whenever  from  any  cause 
its  intrusive  competitors  cease  to  exist. 

The  hay  made  from  the  mixture  of  goose,  and  other 
grasses  —  among  which  black  grass  generally  predomi- 
nates —  is  a  most  valuable  fodder.  The  goose  grass  is 
so  weighty  that  it  takes  but  a  small  quantity,  compara- 
tively, for  a  ton,  and  cattle  eat  it  with  almost  as  much 
avidity  as  oats,  or  any  other  grain.  In  fact,  no  hay  is 
more  valuable  than  black  grass  with  a  large  admixture 
of  goose  grass,  when  properly  cured.  This  is  the  result 
of  the  experience  of  practical  farmers  along  the  coast. 

The  curing  process  requires  care  and  time;  for  goose 
grass  is  as  full  of  juice  as  possible,  and  requires  a  much 
longer  exposure  than  black  grass,  while  a  very  little 


TREATMENT    OF    SALT    MARSHES.  70 

wet,  when  it  is  partially  cured,  materially  injures  the 
black  grass. 

We  may  judge  of  the  properties  of  goose  grass  from 
the  fact  that  in  several  instances  within  my  own  knowl- 
edge cattle  have  died  of  hoove  from  eating  it  early  in 
the  spring,  as  is  not  uufrequently  the  case  with  clover. 

It  resembles  in  the  shape  of  its  leaves,  and  somewhat 
in  its  cluster-like  growth,  that  species  of  garlic  which 
used  formerly  to  be  grown  in  kitchen  gardens,  called 
cives,  or  more  properly  chives.  Its  seed-stalks  and  seeds 
are  almost  precisely  like  the  spikelets  and  seeds  of  the 
common  plantain. 

It  grows  both  on  high  and  low  marshes,  but  is  very 
seldom  worth  cutting  on  those  tracts  where  it  grows 
by  itself,  and  without  the  admixture  of  other  grasses. 

It  is  proper  to  state,  in  this  connection,  that  experi- 
ments have  been  made  to  introduce  this  valuable  grass 
into  our  fresh  wet  meadows,  and  with  good  success. 

Most  of  the  superior  salt-marsh  grasses  are  greatly 
improved  by  ditching,  while  the  poorer  and  compara- 
tively worthless  plants  found  there  very  soon  die  out 
after  this  operation,  and  give  place  to  more  valuable 
species.  It  may  be  safely  asserted  that,  on  an  average, 
the  value  of  the  marsh  is  nearly  doubled  by  it,  while 
the  vegetable,  peaty  matter  taken  from  it  is  sufficient, 
if  properly  used,  to  pay  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
outlay. 

CLUSTERED  SPEAR  or  REFLEXED  MEADOW  GRASS  ( Gly- 
ceria  distans)  is  found  also  in  salt  marshes  along  the 
coast.  It  appears  to  be  closely  allied  to  goose  grass. 
Stems  ascending,  destitute  of  running  shoots  ;  branches 
of  the  panicle  three  to  five  in  a  half  whorl,  and  spread- 
ing. Leaves  flat.  It  is  of  less  value  than  the  pre- 
ceding species. 


8QT  THE    SPEAR    GRASSES. 

32.  BRIZOEXRUM.  Spike  Grass. 

Large  flowers  and  spikelets,  compressed  and  crowded 
in  a  dense  spiked  panicle.  Leaves  crowded  on  the 
stems,  folded,  and  mostly  rigid. 

SPIKE  GRASS  (Brizopyrum  spicatum]  is  a  salt-marsh 
grass,  with  culms  or  stems  in  tufts  from  creeping  root- 
stalks,  from  ten  to  eighteen  inches  high.  Flowers  in 
August. 

33.  POA.  Spear  Grasses. 

Spikelets  ovate,  compressed,  flowers  two  to  ten  in 
an  open  panicle:  glumes  shorter  than  the  flowers; 
lower  palea  compressed,  keeled,  pointless,  five-nerved ; 
stamens  two  or  three,  seed  oblong,  free  :  stems  tufted  ; 
leaves  smooth,  flat,  and  soft. 

ANNUAL  SPEAR  GRASS  (Poa  annua),  Fig.  1,  is,  per- 
haps, the  most  common  of  all  our  grasses.  Its  stems 
are  spreading,  flattened,  panicle  often  one-sided,  spike- 
lets  crowded,  three  to  seven  flowered;  lower  palea  more 
or  less  hairy  on  the  nerves  below ;  leaves  of  a  light 
green,  sword-shaped,  flat,  often  crumpled  at  the  margins, 
as  appears  in  the  figure,  smooth  on  both  surfaces,  rough 
at  the  edges.  Florets  not  ivebbed,  and  this  distinguishes 
it  from  the  June  grass  (Poa  pratensiti)  and  its  varieties. 
The  outer  or  lower  palea  of  this  grass  has  no  hairs  on 
the  lateral  ribs,  as  the  poa  pratensis  has.  This  modest 
and  beautiful  grass  flowers  throughout  the  whole  sum- 
mer, and  forms  a  very  large  part  of  the  sward  of  New 
England  pastures,  producing  an  early  and  sweet  feed, 
exceedingly  relished  by  cattle.  It  does  not  resist  the 
drought  very  well,  but  becomes  parched  up. 

The  WAVY  MEADOW  GRASS  (Poa  laxa)  occurs  rarely, 
on  high  and  rocky  hills  in  New  England,  New  York, 
and  northern  latitudes.  Of  no  agricultural  value. 


FOWL    MEADOW    GRASS.  81 

SHORT-LEAVED  SPEAR  GRASS  (Poa  brevifolia)  is  found 
in  rocky  and  hilly  woodlands  of  the  Middle  and  South- 
ern States.  The  upper  leaves  very  short,  the  root- 
leaves  long,  nearly  equalling  the  stem. 

SOUTHERN  SPEAR  GRASS  (Poa  flexuosa)  is  found  in 
the  dry  woods  of  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  other  South- 
ern States.  Panicle  very  diffuse,  leaves  taper  pointed  ; 
lower  palea  prominently  nerved  ;  stem  slender.  Of  no 
agricultural  value. 

WOOD  SPEAR  GRASS  (Poa  alsodes]  is  found  in  woods 
and  hill-sides  from  New  England  to  Wisconsin.  Leaves 
narrow,  acute,  the  upper  often  sheathing  the  base  of 
the  panicle,  the  hairy  branches  of  which  are  generally 
in  threes  and  fours. 

WEAK  MEADOW  GRASS  (Poa  debilis),  another  species 
in  rocky  woodlands,  from  New  England  to  Wisconsin. 
Flowers  in  May.  Panicle  small,  its  branches  slender,  in 
pairs  and  threes.  Stem  weak. 

SYLVAN  SPEAR  GRASS  (Poa  sylvestris}  has  an  erect 
flat  stem,  a  short  pyramidal  panicle,  with  branches,  in 
fives  or  more.  Found  in  rocky  woods  and  meadows  in 
Ohio,  Wisconsin,  and  the  South. 

FOWL  MEADOW,  FALSE  REDTOP  (Poa  serotina).—Fig.  49. 
Spikelets  two  to  four,  sometimes  five  flowered ;  ligules 
oval,  spear-shaped  ;  flowers  green,  often  tinged  with 
purple ;  roots  slightly  creeping  ;  wet  meadows  and 
banks  of  streams,  very  common.  Flowers  in  July  and 
August.  In  long-continued  moist  weather  the  lower 
joints  send  up  flowering  stems.  The  panicle  is  erect 
and  spreading  when  in  flower,  but  more  contracted  and 
drooping  when  ripe.  Indigenous  to  many  parts  of  this 
country,  and  also  a  native  of  Europe.  Its  spikelet  is 
seen  magnified  in  Fig.  50  ;  its  flower,  in  Fig.  51 ;  its 
germ,  in  Fig.  52,  and  its  seed  in  Fig.  53. 


FOWL    MEADOW 


Fig.  52.    Fig.  63. 


Fig.  49.    Fowl  Meadow. 


GEOWTH    OF    FOWL    MEADOW.  83 

It  early  commended  itself  to  the  attention  of  farm- 
ers, for  Jared  Eliot,  writing  in  1749,  says  of  it:  "  There 
are  two  sorts  of  grass  which  are  natives  of  the  country, 
which  I  would  recommend,  —  these  are  Herd's  grass 
(known  in  Pennsylvania  by  the  name  of  Timothy 
grass),  the  other  is  Fowl  Meadow,  sometimes  called 
Duck  grass,  and  sometimes  Swamp-wire  grass.  It  is 
said  that  Herd's  grass  was  first  found  in  a  swamp  in 
Piscataqua,  by  one  Herd,  who  propagated  the  same  ; 
that  fowl  meadow  grass  was  brought  into  a  poor  piece 
of  meadow  in  Dedham,  by  ducks  and  other  wild  water- 
fowl, and  therefore  called  by  such  an  odd  name.  It  is 
supposed  to  be  brought  into  the  meadoAvs  at  Hartford 
by  the  annual  floods,  and  called  there  Swamp-wire  grass. 
Of  these  two  sorts  of  natural  grass,  the  fowl  grass  is 
much  the  best ;  it  grows  tall  and  thick,  makes  a  more 
soft  and  pliable  hay  than  Herd's  grass,  and  consequently 
will  be  more  fit  for  pressing,  in  order  to  ship  off  with 
our  horses  ;  besides,  it  is  a  good  grass,  not  in  abun- 
dance inferior  to  English  grass.  It  yields  a  good  burden, 
three  loads  to  the  acre.  It  must  be  sowed  in  low,  moist 
land.  This  grass  has  another  good  quality,  which  ren- 
ders it  very  valuable  in  a  country  where  help  is  so 
much  wanting ;  it  will  not  spoil  or  suffer,  although  it 
stand  beyond  the  common  times  for  mowing.  Clover 
will  be  lost,  in  a  great  measure,  if  it  be  not  cut  in  the 
proper  season.  Spear  grass,  commonly  called  English 
grass,  if  it  stands  too  long,  will  be  little  better  than  rye 
straw;  if  this  outstand.the  time,  it  is  best  to  let  it  stand 
till  there  comes  up  a  second  growth,  and  then  it  will  do 
tolerably  well ;  but  this  fowl  grass  may  be  mowed  any 
time  from  July  to  October.  *  *  *  This  I  wondered 
at,  but,  viewing  some  of  it  attentively,  I  think  I  have 
found  the  reason  of  it.  When  it  is  grown  about  three 
feet  high,  it  then  falls  down,  but  doth  not  rot  like  other 


84  WOOD    MEADOW    GRASS. 

grass  when  lodged ;  in  a  little,  time  after  it  is  thus  fallen 
down,  at  every  joint  it  puts  forth  a  new  branch.  Now,  to 
maintain  this  young  brood  of  suckers  there  must  be  a 
plentiful  course  of  sap  conveyed  up  through  the  main 
stem  or  straw ;  by  this  means  the  grass  is  kept  green 
and  fit  for  mowing  all  this  long  period." 

It  grows  abundantly  in  almost  every  part  of  New 
England,  especially  where  it  has  been  introduced  and 
cultivated  in  suitable  ground,  such  as  the  borders  of 
rivers  and  intervals  occasionally  overflowed.  It  will 
not  endure  to  be  long  covered  with  water,  especially  in 
warm  weather.  It  is  well  to  let  a  piece  go  to  seed, 
save  the  seed,  and  scatter  it  over  low  lands.  It  makes 
an  excellent  grass  for  oxen,  cows,  and  sheep,  but  is 
thought  to  be  rather  fine  for  horses.  It  never  grows 
so  coarse  or  hard  but  that  the  stalk  is  sweet  and  tender, 
and  eaten  without  waste.  It  is  easily  made  into  hay, 
and  is  a  nutritive  and  valuable  grass.  Owing  to  its 
constantly  sending  forth  flowering  stems,  the  grass  of 
the  lattermath  contains  more  nutritive  matter  than  the 
first  crop  at  the  time  of  flowering ;  hence  the  names 
fertilis  and  serotina,  fertile  and  late  flowering  meadow 
grass.  It  thrives  best  when  mixed  .with  other  grasses, 
and  deserves  a  place  in  all  mixtures  for  rich,  moist 
pastures. 

WOOD  MEADOW  GRASS  (Poa  nemoralis)  grows  from 
eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  high ;  has  a  perennial, 
creeping  root,  an  erect  stem,  slender  and  smooth  ;  the 
upper  sheath  no  longer  than  its  leaf,  with  a  very  short 
ligule,  the  base  of  the  floret  having  a  silky  web  sus- 
pending the  calyx ;  leaves  light-green.  Fig.  54.  It  is 
common  in  moist,  shady  places,  and  appears  as  a  tall, 
rank  grass,  with  a  long,  finely-arched  panicle.  It 
flowers  in  June,  and  ripens  its  seed  in  July.  A  magni- 
fied flower  is  seen  in  Fig.  55. 


ROUGH-STALKED     MEADOW    GRASS. 


85 


Though  it  has  never, 
to  my  knowledge,  been 
cultivated  in  this  country, 
it  appears  to  me  worthy 
of  attention  for  moist  soils. 
It  is  certainly  to  be  classed 
among  the  good-shaded 
pasture  grasses,  furnish- 
ing a  fine,  succulent,  and 
very  nutritive  herbage, 
which  cattle  are  very  fond 
of. 

THE      ROUGH-STALKED 
MEADOW  GRASS  (Poa  tri- 
maKs)f    though    not     so 
common     as     the     June 
grass   (Poa  pratensis},  is 
still  often   met  with,  and 
is  found  to  have  webbed 
florets ;  outer  palea  five- 
ribbed,  marginal  ribs  not 
hairy,    ligule     long     and 
pointed,    stems    two     to 
three  feet  high.  Dis- 
tinguished from  June 
grass  by  ha  vi  n  g  rough 
sheaths,  while  in  the 
latter     the      sheaths 
are  smooth,  the  ligule 
obtuse,  and  the  mar- 
ginal  ribs    of    outer 
palea  furnished  with 

?.  64.     "Wood  Meadow  Grass.  Fig.  55.          hairS.     It  differs  from 

June  grass  also  in  several  other  respects.     The  rough- 
stalled  meadow   grass  has  a  fibrous  root,  that  of  the 


86 


ROUGH-STALKED     MEADOW    GRASS. 


June  grass  is  creeping.    It  flourishes  in  moist  meadows, 
where  it  flowers  in  July.     Introduced. 


Fig.  60.    Rough-stalked  Meadow  Grass.  Fig.  67. 


KENTUCKY    BLUE    GRASS.  87 

This  grass  is  seen  in  Fig.  56,  while  Fig.  57  represents 
a  flower  somewhat  magnified. 

It  is  a  valuable  grass  to  cultivate  in  moist,  sheltered 
soils,  possessing  very  considerable  nutritive  qualities, 
coming  to  perfection  at  a  desirable  time,  and  being  ex- 
ceedingly relished  by  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep.  For 
suitable  soils  it  should  form  a  portion  of  seed  sown, 
producing,  in  mixture  with  other  grasses,  which  serve 
to  shelter  it,  a  large  yield  of  hay,  above  the  average  of 
grass  usually  grown  on  a  similar  soil.  Seven  pounds 
of  seed  to  the  acre  will  produce  a  good  sward.  The 
grass  is  said  to  lose  about  seventy  per  cent,  of  its 
weight  in  drying.  Its  hay  contains  about  one  and  sixty 
hundredths  per  cent,  of  azote,  and  the  nutritive  quali- 
ties of  the  lattermath  are  said  to  exceed  very  consider- 
ably those  of  the  crop  cut  in  the  flower  or  in  the  seed. 

GREEN  MEADOW  GRASS,  JUNE  GRASS,  COMMON  SPEAR 
GRASS,  KENTUCKY  BLUE  GRASS,  &c.  (Poa  pratensis). — 
Lower  florets  connected  at  the  base  by  a  web  of  long, 
silky  filaments,  holding  the  calyx ;  outer  palea  five- 
ribbed,  marginal  ribs  hairy ;  upper  sheath  longer  than 
its  leaf ;  height  from  ten  to  fifteen  inches ;  root  peren- 
nial, creeping ;  stem  erect,  smooth  and  round ;  leaves 
linear,  flat,  acute,  roughish  on  the  edges  and  inner  sur- 
face ;  panicle  diffuse,  spreading,  erect.  The  plant  is  of 
a  light-green  color,  the  spikelets  frequently  variegated 
with  brownish  purple.  Introduced,  and  probably  indig- 
enous to  some  parts  of  the  country.  Flowers  in  June. 
Fig.  58  represents  this  grass,  and  Fig.  59  a  flower  mag- 
nified. 

This  is  an  early  grass,  very  common  in  the  soils  of 
New  England  and  the  West,  in  pastures  and  fields,  con- 
stituting a  considerable  portion  of  the  turf.  It  varies 
very  much  in  size  and  appearance,  according  to  the  soil 
on,  which  it  grows.  In  Kentucky  it  is  universally 


COMMON    SPEAR    GRASS. 


known  as  Blue  Grass,  and  elsewhere  frequently  as  Ken- 
tucky Blue  Grass,  and   still  more   frequently,  in   the 


Fig.  69. 


GROWTH    OF    JUNE    GRASS.  89 

Eastern  States,  as  June  Grass.  It  has  been  called  by 
some,  without  much  reason,  the  most  valuable  of  all  the 
grasses  in  our  pastures.  It  comes  into  the  soil  in  some 
parts  of  the  country  when  left  to  itself,  and  grows  lux- 
uriantly and  is  relished  by  cattle.  Its  creeping  root  is 
said  by  some  to  impoverish  the  soil.  Wherever  it  is 
intended  for  hay  it  is  cut  at  the  time  of  flowering,  as,  if 
the  seed  is  allowed  to  ripen,  more  than  a  fourth  part  of 
the  crop,  according  to  some,  is  lost.  In  its  earliness  it 
is  equalled  by  some  of  the  other  grasses,  and  in  its 
nutritive  constituents  it  is  surpassed,  according  to  the 
recent  and  reliable  investigations  of  Prof.  Way,  by 
several  other  species.  After  being  cut  in  summer  it 
starts  up  slowly.  Low  says,  "  It  is  inferior  to  the 
rough-stalked  meadow  grass,  and  it  may  be  questioned 
whether  it  deserves  to  be  reckoned  among  the  superior 
pasture  grasses." 

It  produces  but  one  flowering  stem  in  a  year,  while 
many  of  the  other  grasses  continue  to  shoot  up  flower- 
stalks  and  run  to  seed  through  the  season.  On  this 
account  it  is  recommended  highly  for  lawns,  where  uni- 
formity is  desired.  The  produce  ordinarily  is  small, 
compared  with  other  grasses,  but  the  herbage  is  fine. 
It  grows  well  in  rather  a  dry  soil,  but  will  grow  on  a 
variety  of  soils,  from  the  dryest  knolls  to  a  wet 
meadow,  but  does  not  withstand  our  severe  droughts 
as  well  as  some  other  grasses.  Its  reputation  is  higher 
in  this  country  than  in  England,  where  it  is  denied,  by 
many  farmers,  even  a  place  among  the  grasses  to  be 
recommended  for  cultivation.  It  endures  the  frosts  of 
winter  better  than  many  other  grasses  ;  and  in  Ken- 
tucky, where  it  attains  the  highest  perfection  as  a  pas- 
ture grass,  it  sometimes  continues  luxuriant  through 
their  mild  winters. 

June  grass  requires  at  least  two  or  three  years  to 
8* 


90  PRACTICAL    OPINIONS. 

become  well  set,  and  it  does  npt  arrive  at  its  perfection 
as  a  pasture  grass  till  the  sward  is  older  than  that ;  and 
hence  it  is  not  suited  to  alternate  husbandry,  or  where 
the  land  is  to  remain  in  grass  only  two  or  three  years, 
and  then  be  ploughed  up. 

In  Kentucky,  the  best  blue  grass  is  found  in  partially 
shaded  pastures.  A  well-known  farmer  of  that  state, 
in  a  communication  to  the  Ohio  Farmer,  says :  "  In 
our  climate  and  soil,  it  is  not  only  the  most  beautiful 
of  grasses,  but  the  most  valuable  of  crops.  It  is  the 
first  deciduous  plant  which  puts  forth  its  leaves  here ; 
ripens  its  seed  about  the  tenth  of  June,  and  then 
remains  green,  if  the  summer  is  favorable  in  moisture, 
during  the  summer  months,  growing  slowly  till  about 
the  last  of  August,  when  it  takes  a  second  vigorous 
growth,  until  the  ground  is  frozen  by  winter's  cold. 
If  the  summer  is  dry,  it  dries  up  utterly,  and  will  burn 
if  set  on  fire  ;  but  even  then,  if  the  spring  growth  has 
been  left  upon  the  ground,  is  very  nutritious  to  all 
grazing  stock,  and  especially  to  sheep  and  cattle,  and 
all  ruminating  animals.  When  left  to  have  all  its  fall 
growth,  it  makes  fine  winter  pasture  for  all  kinds  of 
grazing  animals.  Cattle  will  not  seek  it  through  the 
snow,  but  sheep,  mules,  and  horses,  will  paw  off  the 
snow  and  get  plenty  without  any  other  food.  When 
covered  with  snow,  cattle  require  some  other  feeding ; 
otherwise  they  do  well  all  winter  upon  it. 

"  It  makes  also  the  best  of  hay.  I  have  used  it  for 
that  for  twenty  years.  It  should  be  cut  just  as  the 
seeds  begin  to  ripen,  be  well  spread,  and  protected 
from  the  dew  at  night  by  windrowing  or  cocking ;  the 
second  evening  stacked,  with  salt,  or  sheltered  with 
salt  also.  When  properly  cured,  stock  seem  greatly  to 
prefer  it  to  all  other  hay.  I  would  not  recommend  it 
for  meadow,  especially,  however,  because  the  yield  is 


WINTER    PASTURES.  91 

hardly  equal  to  Timothy  and  clover,  and  because  it  is 
more  difficult  to  cut  and  cure." 

The  same  writer  says :  "  Any  time  in  the  winter, 
when  the  snow  is  on  the  ground,  sow  broadcast  from 
three  to  four  quarts  of  clean  seed  to  the  acre.  With 
the  spring  the  seeds  germinate,  and  are  very  fine  in  the 
sprouts,  and  delicate.  No  stock  should  be  allowed  for 
the  first  year,  nor  until  the  grass  seeds  in  June,  for  the 
first  time  in  the  second  year.  The  best  plan  is  to  turn 
*on  your  stock  when  the  seed  ripens  in  June.  Graze 
off  the  grass,  then  allow  the  fall  growth  and  graze  all 
winter,  taking  care  never  to  feed  the  grass  closely  at 
any  time." 

Another  eminent  cattle  breeder,  speaking  of  this 
grass,  says,  "  Whoever  has  limestone  land  has  blue 
grass ;  whoever  has  blue  grass  has  the  basis  of  all 
agricultural  prosperity ;  and  that  man,  if  he  have  not 
the  finest  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  has  no  one  to  blame 
but  himself.  Others,  in  other  circumstances,  may  do 
well.  He  can  hardly  avoid  doing  well,  if  he  will  try." 

By  reference  to  a  table  on  a  subsequent  page,  contain- 
ing the  results  of  the  recent  investigations  of  Prof. 
Way,  the  distinguished  chemist  of  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Societ}7  of  England,  will  be  seen  the  relative  value  of 
thrs  grass  when  green,  as  compared  with  Timothy,  for 
instance,  as  shown  in  the  nutritive  and  flesh-forming, 
and  especially  in  the  fat-forming  principles,  which  con- 
tribute so  largely  to  the  development  and  support  of 
the  whole  animal  system.  The  reader  is  referred  to  that 
table,  and  to  another  following  it,  containing  analyses 
of  these  plants  when  dried  and  freed  from  water,  and  to 
the  explanatory  remarks  on  the  nutritive  principles  of 
plants,  which  precede  those  tables. 

BLUE  GRASS,  or  WIRE  GRASS  (Poa  compressa).  — 
Stems  ascending,  flattened,  the  uppermost  joint  near 


92  BLUE    GRASS. 

the  middle ;  leaves  short,  blujsh-green  ;  panicle  dense 
and  contracted,  expanding  more  at  flowering ;  short 
branches  often  in  pairs,  covered  with  four  to  nine 
flowered,  flat  spikelets ;  flowers  rather  obtuse,  linear, 
hairy  below  on  the  keel ;  ligule  short  and  blunt ;  height 
about  a  foot.  It  is  very  common  on  dry,  sandy,  thin 
soils  and  banks,  so  hardy  as  to  grow  on  the  thin,  hard 
soils  covering  the  surface  of  rocks,  along  trodden  walks, 
or  gravelly  knolls. 

Blue  grass  shoots  its  leaves  early,  but  the  amount  of 
its  foliage  is  not  large  ;  otherwise  it  would  be  one  of  our 
most  valuable  grasses,  since  it  possesses  a  large  per 
cent,  of  nutritive  matter.  Flowers  in  July.  Most 
grazing  animals  eat  it  greedily ;  cows  feeding  on  it  pro- 
duce a  very  rich  milk  and  fine-flavored  butter,  and  it  is 
especially  relished  by  sheep.  Its  bluish-green  stems 
retain  their  color  after  the  seed  is  ripe.  It  shrinks  less 
in  drying  than  most  other  grasses,  and  consequently 
makes  a  hay  very  heavy  in  proportion  to  its  bulk.  It 
is  an  exceedingly  valuable  pasture  grass  on  dry,  rocky 
knolls,  and  should  form  a  portion  of  a  mixture  for  such 
soils.  This  should  not  be  confounded  with  Kentucky 
blue  grass,  alluded  to  above. 

34.  ERAGROSTIS. 

.  Spikelets  two  to  seventy  flowered ;  lower  pale  three- 
nerved,  not  hairy  at  the  base,  like  Poa,  the  upper 
remaining  on  the  entire  rachis  after  the  rest  of  the 
flowers  have  fallen  off.  Stems  often  branching. 

CREEPING  MEADOW  GRASS  (Eragrostis  reptans),  Fig.  60, 
is  often  found  on  the  gravelly  banks  of  rivers,  from  New 
England  to  the  Western  States.  It  grows  from  six  to 
fifteen  inches  high,  is  annual,  and  flowers  in  August. 
It  is  a  delicate  and  beautiful  grass,  with  short,  nearly 
awl-shaped  leaves,  smooth,  long  spikelets,  loose  sheaths, 


CREEPING  MEADOW  GRASS. 


93 


slightly  hairy  on  the  margin;  panicles  from  one  to  two 
inches  long.  Its  panicle  and  creeping  root-stalk  are 
seen  in  Fig.  60.  Its  spikelets  magnified,  in  Fig.  61.  A 
palea  in  Fig.  62,  its  stamens  in  Fig.  63,  and  a  seed  in 
Fig.  64,  while  a  magnified  surface  of  a  rootlet  is  shown 
in  Fig.  65. 


Fig.  60.    Creeping  Meadow  Grass. 

The  STRONG-SCENTED  MEADOW  GRASS  (Eragrostis  po- 
ceoides) is  sometimes  found  in  sandy  fields,  roadsides, 
cultivated  grounds,  and  waste  places.  Its  leaves  are 
flat  and  smooth ;  lower  sheaths  hairy,  spikelets  contain- 
ing from  ten  to  twenty  florets,  of  a  lead-color.  It 
flowers  in  August  and  September. 

The  PUNGENT  MEADOW  GRASS.  —  A  variety  of  the  last 
(Eragrostis  poceoides,  var.  megastachya)  is  found  more 
frequently  on  similar  situations ;  flowering  about  the 
same  time ;  emitting,  when  fresh,  a  sharp  and  disagree- 
able odor,  by  which  it  may  be  known. 

The  SLENDER  MEADOW  GRASS  (Eragrostis  pilosa)  is 
found  with  a  large,  loose,  pyramidal  panicle ;  spikelets 
from  five  to  twelve  flowered,  of  a  purplish  lead-color ; 


94  MEADOW    COMB    GRASS. 

glumes  and  lower  pale  obtuse ;  on  sandy  and  gravelly 
waste  places,  from  New  England  to  Illinois,  and  south- 
ward. It  is  from  six  to  twelve  inches  high. 

SHORT-STALKED  MEADOW  (Eragrostis  Frankii),  a  grass 
found  in  low  sandy  ground  in  Ohio,  Illinois,  and  south- 
westward  ;  has  a  dense  spreading  panicle ;  spikelets 
from  two  to  five  flowered,  on  slender  pedicels ;  glumes 
acute ;  lower  pale  egg-shaped,  acute.  Grows  from  three 
to  eight  inches  high. 

SOUTHERN  ERAGROSTIS  (Eragrostls  Purshii)  grows 
with  a  lengthened  panicle,  widely  spreading,  and  very 
loose;  on  sandy  and  sterile  lands,  from  New  Jersey  to 
Virginia,  and  southward.  Spikelets  shorter  than  their 
hairy  pedicels  ;  glumes  and  lower  pale  acute.  Flowers 
in  August. 

BRANCHING  SPEAR  GRASS  (Eragrostis  tennis}  is 
another  species,  found  from  Illinois  to  Virginia,  and  at 
the  South,  on  soils  similar  to  the  last,  with  a  panicle 
from  one  to  two  feet  long,  and  very  loose.  Glumes 
awl-shaped,  very  acute  ;  lower  pale  three-nerved  ;  leaves 
from  one  to  two  feet  long.  Flowers  from  August  to 
October. 

HAIR-PANTCLED  MEADOW  GRASS  (Eragrostis  capillatis), 
with  its  expanding,  loose,  and  delicate  panicle,  from  one 
to  two  feet  long,  is  found  in  sandy,  waste  places,  and 
very  common  southward.  Spikelets  small,  two  to  four 
flowered,  and  greenish  or  purplish;  leaves  and  sheaths 
hairy.  Flowers  in  August  and  September. 

MEADOW  COMB  GRASS  (Eragrostis  pectinacea)  is  found 
also  from  New  England  southward,  near  the  coast,  and 
from  Michigan  and  Illinois  southward.  Panicle. widely 
diffuse;  spikelets  flat,  five  to  fifteen  flowered,  purple ; 
glumes  and  flowers  acutish ;  lower  pale  three-nerved ; 
leaves  rigid,  long,  and  hairy. 


QUAKING    GRASS.  95 

A  variety  of  this  species,  the  Eragrostis  spectdbilis,  is 
found  also  on  similar  soils  and  situations. 


fig.  6a     Quaking  Grass. 


Fig.  67. 


96  THE    FESCUE    GRASSES. 

35.  BRIZA.  Quaking  Grass. 

Glumes  roundish,  unequal,  of  a  purple  color.  Spike- 
lets  many-flowered,  heart>shaped ;  lower  pale  roundish 
and  entire ;  upper  smaller,  egg-shaped,  flat  j  leaves  flat, 
stamens  three. 

QUAKING  GRASS  (Briza  media}  is  sometimes  met  with 
in  the  pastures  of  Massachusetts  and  in  Pennsylvania. 
Panicle  erect,  with  very  slender,  spreading  branches, 
and  large,  purplish,  tremulous  spikelets,  from  five  to 
nine  flowered ;  inner  glume  finely  fringed,  entire  at  the 
end.  It  is  shown  in  Fig.  66.  In  Fig.  67  is  shown  a 
magnified  spikelet. 

It  is  a  very  beautiful,  light,  slender  grass,  about  a 
foot  high,  perennial.  Flowering  in  June  and  July. 
There  is  an  annual,  the  LARGE  QUAKING  GRASS  (Briza 
maxima],  with  large,  many-flowered  spikes,  cultivated 
in  gardens  for  ornament,  and  gathered  for  vases  as  an 
interesting  curiosity. 

36.  FESTUCA.  Fescue  Grasses. 

The  characters  of  this  genus  are  oblong  spikelets, 
somewhat  compressed,  from  three  to  many  flowered  ; 
two  very  unequal  glumes,  pointed  ;  palea3  roundish  on 
the  back ;  from  three  to  five  nerved ;  awn  pointed  or 
bristle-shaped ;  stamens  three ;  flowers  harsh,  often 
purplish ;  panicle  nearly  erect ;  leaves  narrow,  rigid,  of 
a  grayish  green. 

SMALL  FESCUE  GRASS  (Festuca  tenella).  —  The  small 
fescue  has  a  spike-like  panicle,  somewhat  one-sided, 
from  seven  to  nine  flowered ;  awn  of  the  awl-shaped 
palea  slender ;  leaves  bristle-formed ;  stem  slender,  six 
to  twelve  inches  high.  It  flourishes  on  dry  and  sterile 
soils,  and  is  common  from  New  England  to  Illinois  and 
Wisconsin.  Flowers  in  July. 


SHEEP'S  FESCUE. 


97 


SHEEP'S  FESCUE  (Festuca  ovina},  Fig.  68,  is  known 
by  its  narrow  panicle ;  short,  tufted,  bristle-shaped 
leaves,  of  a  grayish  color,  some- 
what tinged  with  red ;  its  spike- 
lets  two  to  six  flowered ;  awn 
often  nearly  wanting.  Its  flower 
is  shown  magnified  in  Fig.  69. 

It  grows  from  six  to  ten 
inches  high,  in  dense,  perennial- 
rooted  tufts,  forming  an  excel- 
lent pasturage  for  sheep.  It 
flowers  "in  June  and  July,  in 
the  dry  pastures  of  New  Eng- 
land, westward  to  Lake  Supe- 
rior, and  northward. 

HARD  FESCUE  GRASS  (Festuca 
duriuscula)  is  also  found  to 
some  extent,  though  not  so 
commonly  as  the  small  fescue. 
It  is  by  some  regarded  as  a 
variety  of  the  sheep's  fescue, 
taller,  and  with  a  panicle  more 
open,  leaves  flat,  and  spikelets 
four  to  eight  flowered.  It  grows 
from  one  to  two  feet  high. 
Flowers  in  June,  in  pastures 
and  waste  grounds. 

The  RED  FES- 
CUE (Festuca  ru- 
6ra),  by  some  re- 
garded as  only  a 
variety  of  the 
preceding,  is  one 

Fig.  68.    Sheep's  Fescue.  Fig.  69.  of   the    largest  of 

9 


98 


EED    FESCUE    GRASS. 


the  varieties  of  fescue.     Its  leaves  are  broadish,  flat ; 
root   extensively  creeping,  and   throwing   out  lateral 


Fig.  70.    Red  Fescue. 


Fig.  71.         Fig.  72.    Meadow  Fescue. 


MEADOW    FESCUE.  99 

shoots.  Found  in  dry  pastures  near  the  sea-shore,  in 
sandy  soils.  It  is  a  grass  of  better  quality  than  some 
of  the  other  species,  but  is  never  cultivated  in  this 
country  as  an  agricultural  product.  The  color  of  its 
leaves  is  somewhat  more  grayish  than  the  preceding, 
and  often  tinged  with  red.  It  is  shown  in  Fig.  70, 
while  its  spikelet  is  seen  magnified  in  Fig.  71. 

MEADOW  FESCUE  (Festuca  pratensis)  is  one  of  the 
most  common  of  the  fescue  grasses.  Shown  in  Fig.  72. 
It  is  said  to  be  the  Randall  grass  of  Virginia.  Its  pan- 
icle is  nearly  erect,  branched,  close,  somewhat  inclined 
to  one  side  ;  spikelets  linear,  with  from  five  to  ten  cyl- 
indrical flowers, — a  spikelet  is  shown  magnified  in  Fig. 
73 ; — leaves  linear,  of  a  glossy  green,  pointed,  striated, 
rough  on  the  edges ;  stems  round,  smooth,  from  two  to 
three  feet  high  ;  roots  creeping  ;  perennial.  Its  radical 
or  root  leaves  are  broader  than  those  of  the  stem, 
while  in  most  other  species  of  fescue  the  radical  leaf 
is  generally  narrower  than  those  of  the  stem.  Flowers 
in  June  and  July,  in  moist  pastures  and  near  farm- 
houses. 

This  is  an  excellent  pasture  grass,  forming  a  very 
considerable  portion  of  the  turf  of  old  pastures  and 
fields,  and  is  more  extensively  propagated  and  diffused 
by  the  fact  that  it  ripens  its  seed  before  most  other 
grasses  are  cut,  and  sheds  them  to  spring  up  and  cover 
the  ground.  Its  long  and  tender  leaves  are  much  rel- 
ished by  cattle.  It  is  never  or  rarely  sown  in  this 
country,  notwithstanding  its  great  and  acknowledged 
value  as  a  pasture  grass.  If  sown  at  all,  it  should  be 
in  mixture  with  other  grasses,  as  orchard  grass,  rye 
grass,  or  common  spear  grass.  According  to  Sinclair, 
it  is  of  greater  value  at  the  time  of  flowering  than  when 
the  seed  is  ripe.  It  is  said  to  lose  a  little  over  fifty  per 
cent,  of  its  weight  in  drying  for  hay. 


100 


TALL    FESCUE. 


In  addition  to  its  qualities  as  a  pasture  grass,  it  is 
said  to  make  a  very  good  quality  of  hay,  much  relished 
by  cattle.  The  Randall  grass 
is  highly  spoken  of  for  fall 
and  winter  pastures  in  the 
climate  of  Virginia,  and,  as  it 
often  remains  green  under 
the  snow  through  the  winter, 
it  is  not  unfrequently  called 
"  Evergreen  grass." 

The  TALL  FESCUE  GRASS 
(Festuca  elatior)  is  also  found 
pretty    commonly    in    moist 
meadows  and    around    farm- 
houses.    Its   panicle  is   con- 
tracted, erect,  or  somewhat 
drooping,  with  short  branches, 
spreading  in  all   directions ; 
spikelets  crowded,  with  five  to 
ten  flowers,  rather  remote,  ob- 
long,   lanceolate ;  leaves  Sot- 
tish, linear,  acute ;  stems  two 
to  four  feet  high ;  root  perenni- 
al, fibrous,  somewhat  creeping, 
and  forming  large  tufty.    Fig. 
74   shows    this    plant 
at  the  time  of  flower- 
ing,  and    Fig.    75    a 
magnified  spikelet  of 
the  same.     Flowers  in 
June  and  July.    Intro- 
duced from  Europe. 
It     is    a    nutritive 

Fig.  74.    Tall  Fescue  OraW.  Fig.  76.       »nd  productive  graSS, 


SLENDER    SPIKED     FESCUE. 


101 


growing  naturally  in  shady  woods,  and  moist,  stiff  soils. 
Cattle  are  very  fond  of  it.  Said  by  some  to  be  iden- 
tical with  the  meadow  fescue. 

The  SLENDER  SPIKED  FES- 
CUE (Festuca  loliacea),  Fig. 
76,  is  a  species  nearly  allied 
to  the  tall  fescue,  and  pos.- 
sesses  much  the  same  qual- 
ities. It  grows  naturally 
in  moist,  rich  meadows, 
forming  a  good,  permanent 
pasture  grass  ;  but  it  is  met 
with  only  very  rarely  among 
American  grasses,  and  is  of 
little  value  for  cultivation. 
Fig.  77  shows  a  magnified 
flower  of  it. 

The     NODDING     FESCUE 
(Festuca    nutans)     is    also 
rarely   met  with   in   rocky 
woods.        Panicle     diffuse, 
composed  of  several  long, 
slender  branches,  generally 
in  pairs,  nodding  when  ripe. 
Flowers     close     together ; 
leaves    dark    green,    often 
hairy  ;  stem  two  to  four  feet 
high.         From 
New    England 
to     Wisconsin 
and     Minneso- 
ta, and  thence 
northward  and 
westward. 

Fig.  76.    Slender  Spiked  Fescue.  Fig.  77. 


102  THE    BROME    GRASSES. 

37.  BROM.US.  Brome  Grasses. 

Spikelets  from  five  to  many  flowered,  panicled; 
glumes  not  quite  equal,  shorter  than  the  flowers,  mostly 
keeled,  the  lower  one  to  five,  the  upper  three  to 
nine  nerved ;  paleas  herbaceous,  lower  one  convex  on 
the  back,  or  compressed,  keeled,  five  to  nine  nerved ; 
awned  or  bristle-pointed  from  below  the  tip;  upper 
palea  at  length  adhering  to  the  groove  of  the  oblong 
grain;  fringed  on  the  keel;  stamens  three;  styles  at- 
tached below  the  apex  of  the  ovary.  The  grasses  of 
this  genus  are  coarse,  with  large  spikelets,  somewhat 
drooping  generally  when  ripe. 

CHESS,  CHEAT,  WILLARD'S  BROMUS  (Bromus  secalinus), 
has  a  spreading  panicle,  slightly  drooping;  spikelets 
ovate,  smooth,  of  a  yellowish-green  tinge,  showing  the 
rachis  when  in  seed,  and  holding  from  six  to  ten  rather 
distinct  flowers.  In  the  spikelet  exhibited  in  Fig.  80 
seven  can  be  distinctly  counted;  the  eighth  or  ninth, 
imperfectly  developed,  can  often  be  found.  Stems  erect, 
smooth,  round,  from  two  to  three  feet  high,  bearing 
four  or  five  leaves  with  striated  sheaths ;  the  upper 
sheath  crowned  with  an  obtuse,  ragged  ligule;  the  lower 
sheaths  soft  and  hairy,  the  hairs  pointing  downwards  ; 
joints  five,  slightly  hairy  ;  leaves  flat,  soft,  linear,  more 
downy  on  the  upper  than  on  the  under  side ;  points  and 
margin  rough  to  the  touch.  Summit  of  the  large  glume 
midway  between  its  base  and  the  summit  of  the  second, 
floret,  as  seen  in  Fig.  80  (&),  a  constant  mark  of  dis- 
tinction from  Bromus  racemosus  and  Bromus  mollis. 
Fig.  79  shows  the  form  of  this  grass  a  few  days  before 
coming  to  maturity,  and  Fig.  81  a  magnified  spikelet, 
while  Fig.  78  represents  the  same  in  a  more  advanced 
stage.  Flowers  in  June  and  July.  It  has  no  relation 
to  Italian  rye  grass,  as  has  been  claimed. 

Distinguished  from  Bromus  arvensis  in  the  spikelets 
having  fewer  florets,  and  the  outer  palea  being  rounded 


CHESS. 


103 


at  the  summit,  and  being  broader  compared  with  its 
length.  In  Bromus  arvensis  the  outer  pale  is  more  conical. 


Fig.  73. 


Fig.  80.  Fig.  81.          Fig.  79. 


104  COMMITTEES     REPORT    UPON    CHESS. 

Nothing  more  clearly  illustrates  the  want  of  accurate 
knowledge  of  subjects  intimately  connected  with  agri- 
culture, and  immediately  affecting  the  farmers'  interests, 
than  the  more  recent  history  of  the  propagation  of 
this  worthless  pest  to  our  grain-fields.  It  was,  within 
the  memory  of  many  farmers  who  suffered  from  it, 
heralded  in  the  papers,  in  connection  with  the  names  of 
distinguished  friends  of  agriculture,  with  the  earnest 
hope  that  it  might  receive  extended  trials.  Monstrous 
prices  were  charged  and  paid  by  the  farmer  for  its  seed, 
in  many  cases  four  and  five  dollars  a  bushel,  a  pledge 
being  exacted  that  it  should  not  be  allowed  to  go  to 
seed.  Committees  of  agricultural  societies  were  in- 
vited to  examine  and  report  upon  it ;  and  in  a  letter 
now  lying  before  me,  the  disinterested  propagator  very 
kindly  offers  to  put  up  ten  barrels  of  bromus-seed  for 
one  hundred  dollars,  saying  that  "  of  course  the  earliest 
applicants  will  be  sure  of  obtaining  till  all  is  gone, 
which  would  scarcely  give  a  barrel  to  a  state.  *  * 
Years  must  elapse  before  the  country  can  be  supplied 
as  it  now  is  with  Herd's  grass  and  clover  seed.  My 
offer  invites  cooperation  and  participation  in  the  profits 
and  pleasures  now  available  "  —  for  taking  advantage 
of  the  honest  credulity  of  the  public  ? 

A  quantity  of  bromus-seed  was  sent  to  the  State 
Farm  of  Massachusetts,  for  the  purpose  of  experiment, 
with  a  letter  with  directions  to  sow  with  clover,  in  the 
spring  of  1855.  The  crop  was  cut  while  yet  green,  and 
before  the  grass  had  developed  sufficiently  to  distinguish 
it  with  certainty.  The  following  year  directions  were 
given  to  let  it  stand  later  in  the  season.  While  engaged 
in  the  collection  and  study  of  specimens,  in  the  course 
of  the  summer  of  1856,1  gathered  samples  of  the  grass 
when  it  was  still  immature,  the  spikelets  having  pre- 
cisely the  form  indicated  in  Fig.  79.  Without  giving  it 


AN    INTELLIGENT    JURY.  105 

a  very  close  examination  at  the  time,  I  pronounced  it 
the  Bromus  arvensis,  which,  at  that  stage  of  its  growth, 
it  very  much  resembles.  A  few  days  after,  I  was  aston- 
ished to  see  it  develop  into  Chess  (Bromus  secalinus). 
This  was  the  first  ripe  specimen  of  Willard's  bromus  I 
had  seen.  I  examined  it  with  care,  and,  to  avoid  the 
possibility  of  a  mistake,  I  submitted  specimens  of  it  to 
Professor  Gray,  of  Cambridge,  and  to  Professor  Dewey, 
of  Rochester,  New  York,  both  of  whom,  after  examina- 
tion, pronounced  it  genuine  chess. 

But  Mr.  Willard  having  quoted  from  the  report  of  a 
committee  of  an  agricultural  society,  in  which  it  was 
said  that  if  a  "jury  of  cows  should  confirm  the  opinion 
of  Mr.  Willard  as  to  the  superiority  of  the  grass,  then 
will  the  agricultural  community  owe  him  a  debt  of  grat- 
itude for  having  introduced  to  notice  here  a  species  of 
grass  which  is  highly  beneficial  on  light,  sandy  soils, 
much  superior  to  any  other  species,  and  producing  most 
abundantly  on  land  of  better  quality,"  I  directed  it  to 
be  submitted  to  such  a  jury,  which  unhesitatingly  pro- 
nounced a  verdict  in  accordance  with  the  facts,  which 
were  as  follows  : 

The  grass  which  was  first  submitted  for  comparison 
with  the  bromus  was  the  reed  canary  grass  (Phalaris 
arundinacea),  a  grass  of  very  slight  nutritive  and  pal- 
atable qualities.  The  upland  or  English  hay  used  was 
such  as  commonly  goes  by  that  name  among  farmers, 
made  up  of  Timothy  and  redtop  mainly,  of  fair  quality. 
The  meadow  or  swale  hay  was  taken  from  a  wet  mead- 
ow, and  composed  of  coarse,  swale  grasses  or  sedges, 
such  as  are  common  in  New  England,  and  pass  under 
the  term  of  "  meadow  hay."  The  bromus  was  carefully 
picked  out  from  all  other  grasses.  The  two  kinds  given 
in  each  trial  were  put  into  the  same  crib,  but  separated 
by  a  partition. 


106  COMPARATIVE    TRIALS. 

In  the  first  trial,  with  bromu%s  and  reed  canary  grass, 
there  was  no  choice.  Both  were  eaten  alike. 

In  the  second,  with  bromus  and  English  hay,  the 
English  hay  was  preferred. 

In  the  third,  with  bromus  and  swale  hay,  the  swale 
hay  was  eaten  first. 

In  the  fourth,  with  bromus  and  oat  straw,  the  bromus 
was  eaten  first.  • 

In  the  fifth,  with  reed  canary  grass  and  English  hay, 
the  English  hay  was  preferred. 

In  the  sixth,  with  reed  canary  grass  and  swale,  the 
swale  was  chosen  at  once. 

In  the  seventh,  with  reed  canary  grass  and  oat  straw, 
the  oat  straw  was  chosen  first. 

In  the  eighth,  with  reed  canary  grass  and  corn-stalks, 
the  corn-stalks  were  eaten  first. 

In  the  ninth,  with  bromus  and  corn-stalks,  both  were 
eaten  nearly  alike  till  they  were  gone. 

In  the  tenth,  with  bromus  and  millet,  the  cattle  chose 
the  millet,  and  did  not  touch  the  bromus. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  say  that  "  Cheat "  is  a  trouble- 
some weed  to  the  farmer,  especially  when  it  appears  in 
his  grain-fields.  It  is  an  early  grass,  but  the  quantity 
of  herbage,  and  especially  its  quality,  make  it  unfit 
for  cultivation.  Indeed,  the  only  species  of  any  value, 
or  at  all  fit  for  cultivation,  belonging  to  this  large  genus 
of  grasses,  is  the  Bromus  arvensis,  and  even  that  has 
been  discarded  from  modern  agriculture.  It  may  be 
valuable  to  sow  with  spring  grain  to  turn  in  green. 

SMOOTH  BROME  GRASS,  or  UPRIGHT  CHESS  (Bromus 
racemosus),  has  a  panicle  erect,  simple,  rather  narrow, 
contracted  when  in  fruit ;  flowers  closer  than  in  the 
preceding,  lower  palea  exceeding  the  upper,  bearing  an 
awn  of  its  own  length  ;  stem  erect,  round,  more  slender 
than  in  chess ;  sheaths  slightly  hairy.  In  other  respects 


SOFT    BROME    GRASS.  107 

it  is  very  much  like  chess,  but  may  always  be  distin- 
guished from  it,  as  well  as  from  Bromus  arvensis,  in  the 
summit  of  the  large  glume  being  half  way  between  its 
base  and  the  summit  of  the  third  floret,  on  the  same  side ; 
whereas,  in  chess  the  summit  of  the  large  glume  is  half 
way  between  its  base  and  the  summit  of  the  second 
floret.  This  character  is  constant,  and  offers  the  surest 
mark  of  distinction.  It  is  common  in  grain-fields.  It 
is  worthless  for  cultivation  except  for  green  manuring. 

SOFT  CHESS,  or  SOFT  BROME  GRASS  (Bromus  mollis), 
is  sometimes  found.  I  procured  beautiful  specimens  of 
it  at  Nantucket,  where  it  was  growing  in  the  turf  with 
other  grasses,  on  a  sandy  soil  near  the  shore.  Its  pan- 
icle is  erect,  closely  contracted  in  fruit;  spikelets  coni- 
cal, ovate  ;  stems  erect,  more  or  less  hairy,  with  the 
hairs  pointing  downwards,  from  twelve  to  eighteen 
inches  high  ;  joints  four  or  five,  slightly  hairy ;  leaves 
flat,  striated,  hairy  on  both  sides,  rough  at  the  edges 
and  points ;  summit  of  the  large  glume  midway  between 
its  base  and  the  apex  of  the  third  floret,  by  which  it  is 
always  distinguished  from  Willard's  bromus.  Flowers 
in  June.  Birds  are  fond  of  the  seeds,  which  are  large, 
and  ripen  early.  Of  no  value  for  cultivation. 

The  WILD  CHESS  (Bromus  kalmii)  is  another  species, 
found  often  in  dry,  open  woodlands.  It  has  a  small, 
simple  panicle,  with  the  spikelets  drooping  on  hairy 
peduncles,  seven  to  twelve  flowered,  and  silky;  awn 
only  one-third  the  length  of  the  lance-shaped  flower; 
stem  slender,  eighteen  inches  to  three  feet  high ;  leaves 
and  sheaths  hairy.  Flowers  in  June  and  July.  Of  no 
value  for  cultivation. 

FRINGED  BROME  GRASS  (Bromus.  ciliatus)  is  often 
found  in  woods  and  on  rocky  hills  and  river  banks.  It 
has  a  compound  panicle,  very  loose,  nodding ;  spikelets 


108 


MEADOW    BEOME    GRASS. 


seven  to  twelve  flowered  ;  flowers  tipped  with  an  awn 
half  to  three-fourths  their  length ;  stem  three  to  four 
feet  high,  with  large  leaves.     Flowers 
in  July  and  August.     Of  no  value  for 
cultivation. 

The  MEADOW  BROME  GRASS  (Bromus 
pratensis)  is  a  perennial  weed  in  the 
corn-fields  of  England,  and  is  only 
recommended  in  any  part  of  Europe 
for  dry,  arid  soils,  where  nothing  bet- 
ter will  grow.  Fig.  82  represents  this 
grass, and  Fig.  83  a  magnified  spikelet. 

STERILE  BROME  GRASS  (Bromus  ste- 
rilis)  is  but  rarely  met  with.     Panicle 
very  loose,  the  slender  branches  droop- 
ing; leaves  hairy.    Flowers 
in  July. 

Not  one  of  the  brome 
grasses  is  worthy  of  a  mo- 
ment's attention  as  a  culti- 
vated agricultural  grass,  and 
the  cleaner  the  farmer  keeps 
his  fields  of  them  the  better. 

38.  UNIOLA.     Spike  Grass. 

S pikelets  flat,  two-edged, 
many  flowered ;  glumes  com- 
pressed, keeled;  palea)  of 
fertile  flowers,  two  ;  the 
lower  boat-shaped,  the  up 
per  doubly  keeled.  Grain 
free,  smooth,  enclosed  in  the 
pales. 

SPIKE  GRASS  ( Uniola  pa- 
niculata)  is  a  grass  found 

Fig.  82.    Meadow  Brome  Grass.     Fig.  83. 


COMMON    REED    GRASS.  109 

on  sand-hills  along  the  coast  from  Virginia  southward. 
Leaves  narrow  when  dry  ;  spikelets  egg-shaped ;  stems 
from  four  to  eight  feet  high.  Of  no  value  for  culti- 
vation. 

BROAD-LEAVED  SPIKE  GRASS  ( Uniola  latifolid),  another 
species  found  on  rich,  shady  hill-sides,  from  Pennsyl- 
vania to  Illinois  and  southward,  is  known  by  its  loose 
panicle  ;  stem  two  to  four  feet  high  ;  leaves  broad  and 
flat ;  spikelets  hanging  on  long  pedicels.  Flowers  in 
August. 

SLENDER  SPIKE  GRASS  ( Uniola  gracilis)  is  still  another 
species  found  on  sandy  soils  on  the  coast  from  Long 
Island  to  Virginia,  and  further  south.  Stem  rises  three 
feet  high,  and  slender. 

39.  PHRAGMITES.  Heed  Grass. 

Glumes  shorter  than  the  flowers, keeled,  sharp-pointed, 
and  very  unequal ;  rachis  silky-bearded  ;  palese  slender, 
the  lower  thrice  the  length  of  the  upper ;  styles  long, 
grain  free. 

The  COMMON  REED  GRASS  (Phragmites  communis)  is 
a  very  tall,  broad-leaved  grass,  with  the  flower  in  a  large 
terminal  panicle.  It  looks  at  a  little  distance  very  much 
like  broom-corn;  stem  five  to  twelve  feet  high. 

It  grows  on  the  borders  of  ponds  and  swamps,  and  is 
one  of  the  largest  grasses  in  the  United  States.  It  oc- 
curs in  many  localities  in  Massachusetts,  and  thence 
west  to  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota.  Flowers 
in  September. 

40.  ARUNDINARIA.  Cane. 

Glumes  concave,  awnless,  small,  lower  smaller  than 
the  upper ;  scales  three,  longer  than  the  ovary ;   sta- 
mens three,  stems  woody. 
.  10 


110  CANE. —  DARNEL. 

CANE  (Arundinaria  macrosper.ma)  is  a  perennial  grass, 
with  a  stem  often  from  thirty  to  forty  feet  in  height, 
and  flowering  in  March  and  April.  Leaves  linear,  green 
on  both  sides,  smooth ;  spikelets  seven  to  ten  flow- 
ered, purple,  smooth.  In  rich  soils  in  southern  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Kentucky,  Virginia,  and  southward.  The  stems 
are  extensively  used  for  fishing-rods. 

41.  LEPTURUS. 

Flowers  in  spikes  ;  rachis  jointed ;  joints  with  one 
spikelet;  glumes  one  or  two,  growing  to  the  rachis, 
simple  or  two-parted. 

SLENDER-TAIL  GRASS  (Lepturus  paniculatus]  is  found 
in  Illinois  ;  an  annual,  flowering  in  June.  Stem  one 
foot  high,  compressed ;  leaves  short,  rigid ;  glumes 
fixed,  rigid,  unequal,  parallel.  Rare. 

42.  LOLIUM.  Darnel. 

Spikelets  many-flowered,  solitary  on  each  joint  of 
the  continuous  rachis,  edgewise ;  glume  only  one,  and 
external. 

PERENNIAL  RYE  GRASS  (Loliumperenne).— Stem  erect, 
smooth,  fifteen  inches  to  two  feet  high  ;  root  perennial, 
fibrous;  joints  four  or  five,  smooth,  often  purplish; 
leaves  dark  green,  lanceolate,  acute,  flat,  smooth  on  the 
outer  surface,  and  roughish  on  the  inner ;  glume  much 
shorter  than  the  spikelet ;  flowers  six  to  nine,  awnless. 
Flowers  in  June.  Shown  in  Fig.  84.  Fig.  85  represents 
a  magnified  spikelet  of  this  grass. 

It  has  had  the  reputation  in  Great  Britain,  for  many 
years,  of  being  one  of  the  most  important  and  valuable 
of  the  cultivated  grasses.  It  is  probably  much  better 
adapted  to  a  wet  and  uncertain  climate  than  to  one 
subject  almost  annually  to  droughts,  which  often  con- 


PEEENNIAL    BYE    GRASS. 


Ill 


tirme  many  weeks,  parching  up  every  green  thing. 
There  is,  perhaps,  no  grass,  the  characteristics  of  which 
vary  so  much,  from  the  influences 
of  soil,  climate,  and  culture,  as  pe- 
rennial rye  grass.  Certain  it  is  that 
this  grass  has  been  cultivated  in 
England  since  1677,  and  in  the 
south  of  France  from  time  imme- 
morial. It  is  admitted  to  be  infe- 
rior in  nutritive  value  to  orchard 
grass  (Dactylis  glomerata),  when 
green. 

Whenever  it  is  cut  for  hay,  it  is 
necessary  to  take  it  in  the  blossom, 
or  very  soon  after,  since  otherwise 
it  becomes  hard  and  wiry,  and  is 
not  relished  by  stock  of  any  kind ; 
and  it  changes  very  rapidly  after 
blossoming,  from  a  state  in  which 
it  contains  the  greatest  amount  of 
water,   sugar,   &c.,  and   the   least 
amount  of  woody  fibre,  into  the 
state   in   which   it    possesses    the 
least  amount  of  water,  sugar,  &c., 
and  the  greatest  amount  of  woody 
fibre,  and  other  insoluble  solid  mat- 
ter.    A  specimen,  analyzed  about 
\the    20th  of  June,  and   found  to 
contain  81^  per  cent, 
of  water,  and  18|  per 
cent,  of  solid  matter, 
was  found,  only  three 
weeks  later,  to  contain 
only  69  per  cent,  water, 
and  31  of  solid  matter. 

Fig,-  84.     Perennial  Rye  Grass.  Fig.  85. 


112 


ITALIAN    RYE    GEASS. 


It  is,  undoubtedly,  a  valuable  grass,  and  worthy  of 
attention;  but  it  is  not  to  be  compared,  for  the  pur- 
poses of  New  England  agri- 
culture, to  Timothy,  or  to 
orchard  grass.  It  produces 
abundance  of  seed,  soon  ar- 
rives at  maturity,  is  relished 
by  stock,  likes  a  variety  of 
soils,  all  of  which  it  exhausts  ; 
lasts  six  or  seven  years,  and 
then  dies  out. 

ITALIAN  RYE  GRASS  (Lolium 
Italicum)  has  been  recently  in- 
troduced into  this  country, and 
is  now  undergoing  experiment 
which  will  assist  in  determin- 
ing its  value  for  us.    It  differs 
from  perennial  rye  grass  in  the 
florets    having   long,    slender 
awns,  and  from  bearded  darnel 
(Lolium   temulentum)    in   the 
glumes  being  shorter  than  the 
spikelets.    This  difference  will 
be   manifest  on   reference  to 
Fig.  86,  and  Fig. 
87,  which   repre- 
sents a  magnified 
spikelet.   It  turfs 
less  than  the  pe- 
rennial rye  grass, 
its      stems      are 
higher,  its  leaves 

Fig.  se.  Italian  Rye  Grass.  Fig.  ST.  are  larger  and  of 
a  lighter  green  ;  it  gives  an  early,  quick,  and  successive 
growth,  till  late  in  the  fall. 


COMPARED  WITH  TIMOTHY.          113 

To  say  that  it  is,  or  would  be,  the  best  grass  in  our 
climate  and  on  our  soils,  would  be  altogether  prema- 
ture ;  but  it  has  the  credit  abroad  of  being  equally 
suited  to  all  the  climates  of  Europe,  giving  more  abun- 
dant crops,  of  a  better  quality,  and  better  relished  by 
animals,  than  the  perennial  rye  grass.  It  is  one  of  the 
greatest  gluttons  of  all  the  grasses,  either  cultivated  or 
wild,  and  will  endure  any  amount  of  forcing  by  irriga- 
tion or  otherwise,  while  it  is  said  to  stand  a  drought 
remarkably  well. 

The  soils  best  adapted  to  Italian  rye  grass  seem  to 
be  moist,  fertile,  and  tenacious,  or  of  a  medium  con- 
sistency ;  and  on  such  soils  it  is  said  to  be  one  of  the 
best  grasses  known  to  cut  green  for  soiling,  aifording 
repeated  luxuriant  and  nutritive  crops.  I  have  not 
seen  enough  of  it  to  speak  from  personal  observation 
or  experience  of  the  comparative  profit  of  this  grass 
and  Timothy  for  cultivation  here  ;  but  its  comparative 
nutritive  value  is  well  known  from  the  thorough  and 
reliable  analyses  of  Professor  Way.  By  these  it  ap- 
pears that  100  parts  of  Timothy  grass,  as  taken  from 
the  field,  contain  57.21  per  cent,  of  water,  4.86  per  cent, 
of  albuminous  or  flesh-forming  principles,  1.50  per  cent, 
of  fatty  matters,  22.85  per  cent,  of  heat-producing  prin- 
ciples, such  as  starch,  gum,  sugar,  <fec.,  11.32  per  cent, 
of  woody  fibre,  and  2.26  of  mineral  matter  or  ash ;  while 
100  parts  of  Italian  rye  grass,  taken  from  the  same  kind 
of  soil  and  in  the  same  condition,  green,  contained  75.61 
per  cent,  of  water,  2.45  of  albuminous  or  flesh-forming 
principles,  .80  of  fatty  matters,  14.11  of  heat-producing 
principles,  starch,  gum,  and  sugar,  4.82  of  woody  fibre, 
and  2.21  of  mineral  matter  or  ash.  Of  these,  the  flesh- 
forming  principles,  fatty  matters,  and  heat-producing 
principles,  are,  of  course,  by  far  the  most  important; 
and  in  all  these  our  favorite  Timothy  very  far  excels 
10* 


114 


BEARDED    DARNEL. 


the  Italian  rye  grass,  showing,  a  nutritive  value  nearly 
double. 

Nor  has  the  Italian  rye  grass  any  advantage  over 
Timothy  in  the  dried  state,  though  the  difference  is  by 


Fig.  88.    Bearded  Darnel.       Fig.  90. 


Fig.  89.    Many-flowered  Darnel. 


COUCH    GRASS.  115 

no  means  so  marked ;  the  former  dried  at  212°  Fahren- 
heit containing  10.10  per  cent,  of  flesh-forming  princi- 
ples, the  latter  11.36;  the  former  containing  3.27  per 
cent,  of  fatty  matter,  the  latter  3.55  ;  the  former  con- 
taining 57.82  per  cent,  of  heat-forming  principles,  the 
latter  53.35. 

There  are  432,000  seeds  in  a  pound  of  Italian  rye 
grass,  and  from  thirteen  to  eighteen  pounds  in  a  bushel. 

The  BEARDED  DARNEL  (Lolium  temulentum),  Fig.  88, 
is  sometimes  found  in  our  grain-fields,  with  its  glume 
equalling  the  five  to  seven  flowered  spikelets,  and  awn 
longer  than  the  flower.  Its  grain  is  poisonous — almost 
the  only  instance  known  among  the  grasses. 

The  MANY-FLOWERED  DARNEL  (Lolium  multiflonim)  is, 
perhaps,  the  most  showy  species  of  rye  grass  culti- 
vated. It  is  but  very  rarely,  if  ever,  met  with  here, 
though  it  was  introduced  from  France  to  England  about 
thirty  years  ago,  and  is  there  cultivated  to  some  extent. 
Fig.  89  shows  the  appearance  of  this  grass,  and  Fig.  90 
a  magnified  spikelet.  It  is  very  nearly  allied  to,  if  not 
identical  with,  Italian  rye  grass. 

43.  TRITICUM.  Wheat. 

Spikelets  three  to  several  flowered,  compressed,  with 
the  flat  side  toward  the  rachis  ;  glumes  nearly  equal 
and  opposite,  nerved;  lower  palea  like  the  glumes,  con- 
vex on  the  back,  awned  from  the  tip,  upper  flattened ; 
stamens  three  ;  mostly  annuals,  but  others  are  peren- 
nials, to  which  the  couch  grass  belongs. 

COUCH  GRASS,  QUITCH  GRASS,  TWITCH  GRASS,  DOG 
GRASS,  CHANDLER  GRASS,  &c.  (Triticum  repens),  seen  in 
Fig  91,  with  its  roots  creeping  extensively;  stem  erect, 
round,  smooth,  from  one  to  two  or  two  and  a  half  feet 
high,  striated,  having  five  or  six  flat  leaves,  with  smooth, 


116 


TWITCH    GEASS. 


striated  sheaths  ;  the  joints  ar.e  smooth,  the  two  upper- 
most very  remote ;  leaves  dark  green,  acute,  upper  one 
broader  than  the  lower  ones, 
roughish,  sometimes  hairy 
on  the  inner  surface,  smooth 
on  the  lower  half.  Inflores- 
cence in  spikes.  A  spike- 
let  is  seen  magnified  in  Fig. 
92.  Flowers  in  June  and 
July.  Introduced  from  Eu- 
rope. 

This    plant    is   generally 
regarded  by    farmers   as  a 
troublesome   weed,  and  ef- 
forts are  made  to  get  rid  of 
it.    Its  long,  creeping  roots, 
branching   in    every   direc- 
tion, take  complete  posses- 
sion of  the  soil,  and  impov- 
erish it.    When  green,  how- 
ever, it  is  very  much  rel- 
ished by  cattle,  and,  if  cut 
in  the  blossom,  it  makes  a 
nutritious  hay.      Dogs  eat 
the  leaves  of  this  grass,  and 
those     of     one 
other     species, 
for  their   medi- 
cinal    qualities 
1  in  exciting  vom- 
iting.      1    have 
seen  acres  of  it 
on  the  Connecti- 
cut Eiver  mead- 
Fig.  91.    Couch  Gra*.  Fig.  92.          OWS,     where     it 


THE    BARLEY    GRASSES.  117 

had  taken  possession  and  grew  luxuriantly,  and  was 
called  wheat  grass,  from  its  resemblance  to  wheat.  It 
goes  in  different  parts  of  the  country  by  a  great  variety 
of  names,  as  quake  grass,  quack  grass,  squitch  grass.  It 
is  important  to  destroy  it,  if  possible. 

BEARDED  WHEAT  GRASS  (Triticum  caninum)  is  found 
in  woods  and  on  the  banks  of  streams,  from  New  York 
to  Wisconsin  and  northward.  It  has  no  creeping  root- 
stalks,  like  couch  grass.  Spikelets  four  or  five  flowered; 
glumes  three-nerved,  rachis  rough  and  bristly  on  the 
edges  ;  awn  longer  than  the  smooth  flower ;  leaves  flat 
and  roughish.  It  is  perennial,  and  flowers  in  August ; 
grows  from  one  to  three  feet  high.  It  is  sometimes 
found  in  fields. 

A  variety  of  couch  grass,  the  Triticum  dasystachyum, 
is  also  found  in  Michigan  and  Wisconsin. 

WHEAT  ( Triticum  vulgare).  —  See  next  chapter. 

EGYPTIAN  WHEAT  ( Triticum  compositum)  is  cultivated 
in  gardens  as  a  curiosity. 

44.  HORDEUM.          Barley  Grasses. 

Spikelets  one-flowered,  with  an  awl-shaped  rudiment 
on  the  inner  side,  three  at  each  joint  of  the  rachis,  the 
lateral  ones  usually  abortive  or  imperfect,  short-stalked : 
glumes  side  by  side  in  front  of  the  spikelets,  slender  and 
bristle-form;  lower  pale  convex,  long-awned;  stamens 
three ;  grain  long,  adhering  to  the  pales. 

SQUIRREL-TAIL  GRASS  (Hordeum  jubatum)  is  widely 
diffused  over  our  salt  marshes,  and  the  shores  of  the 
northern  lakes,  in  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Minnesota,  and 
becomes  a  prairie  grass  in  moist,  level  places.  Stem 
slender,  smooth,  from  one  to  two  feet  high,  with  rather 
short  leaves,  and  low,  lateral,  abortive,  neutral  flowers, 
op.  a  short  pedicel,  short-awned,  the  perfect  flower 


118  THE    LYME    GEASSES. 

bearing  an  extremely  long  aw,n,  about  the  length  of 
the  similar  hairy  glumes,  all  spreading.  It  is  common 
on  moist  sands  and  marshes  on  the  sea-shore,  flowering 
in  June. 

BARLEY  GRASS  (Hordeum  pusillum)  grows  from  five 
to  ten  inches  high,  in  saltish  soils  of  Ohio,  Illinois,  and 
westward.  Lateral  flowers  imperfect,  awnless,  pointed, 
the  perfect  flower  awned  ;  glumes  rigid,  short-awned. 
Annual.  Much  relished  by  cattle. 

TWO-ROWED  BARLEY  (Hordeum  distichum],  as  well  as 
FOUR  AND  Six  ROWED  BARLEY  (Hordeum  vulgare),  belong 
to  this  genus.  —  See  next  chapter. 

45.  SECALE.  Rye. 

Spikelets  two-flowered,  flowers  perfect,  with  the  rudi- 
ment of  a  third  terminal  flower ;  glumes  nearly  equal, 
nearly  opposite,  keeled,  awnless  or  awned  ;  pales  herba- 
ceous, lower  one  awned,  keeled,  with  sides  unequal  ; 
upper  shorter,  two-keeled  ;  scales  two,  entire  ;  stamens 
three,  ovary  hairy  ;  fruit  free,  hairy  at  the  summit ; 
spikes  simple. 

RYE  (Secale  cerede},  a  common  cultivated  plant,  famil- 
iar to  every  farmer.  —  See  next  chapter. 

46.  ELYMUS.  Lyme  Grasses. 

Spikelets  two  to  four  at  each  joint  of  the  rachis,  all 
fertile,  each  one  to  seven  flowered  ;  glumea  both  on 
one  side  of  the  spikelet;  palese  two,  lower  one  usually 
awned,  mostly  perennial,  some  species  annual. 

LYME  GRASS.  WILD  RYE  (Elymus  Virginicus\  is  fre- 
quent along  the  banks  of  rivers.  It  is  known  by  its 
upright  spike,  dense  and  thick  on  a  short  peduncle, 
usually  included  in  the  sheath ;  two  or  three  spikelets 
together, two  or  three  flowered,  smooth,  shortly  awned; 


CANADIAN    LYME    GRASS.  119 

stamens  three  ;  stems  stout,  from  twt>  to  three  feet  high; 
leaves  broad  and  rough.  Grows  from  two  to  three  feet 
high,  and  flowers  in  July  and  August.  Of  no  special 
value  as  an  agricultural  grass.  Found  from  New  Eng- 
land to  Illinois  and  Wisconsin. 

CANADIAN  LYME  GRASS  (Elymus  Canadensis). —  Spike 
rather  loose,  and  curving  at  the  extremity ;  spikelets 
mostly  in  pairs  of  three  to  five,  long-awned,  rough, 
hairy  flowers ;  the  lance-awl-shaped  glumes,  tipped  with 
shorter  awns  ;  stem  three  to  four  feet  high,  root  creep- 
ing; leaves  broad,  flat,  linear;  sheaths  smooth,  and  ligule 
short.  Flowers  in  August.  It  is  common  on  the  banks 
of  rivers. 

SLENDER  HAIRY  LYME  GRASS  (Elymus  striatus)  is 
sometimes  found  in  rocky  woods  and  on  the  banks  of 
streams,  as  the  most  slender  and  smallest-flowered  spe- 
cies of  this  genus.  It  flowers  in  July.  Rare,  and  of 
little  value  for  agricultural  purposes. 

SOFT  LYME  GRASS  (Elymus  mollis)  rises  three  feet 
high,  on  the  shores  of  the  northern  lakes,  Superior, 
Huron,  and  in  higher  latitudes.  It  has  a  thick,  erect 
spike,  with  two  or  three  spikelets  at  each  joint,  from 
five  to  eight  flowered. 

UPRIGHT  SEA  LYME  GRASS  (Elymus  arenarius).  — 
This  grass,  which  much  resembles  beach  grass,  grows 
from  two  to  five  feet  high,  with  a  perennial,  long,  creep- 
ing root ;  stem  erect,  round,  smooth  ;  leaves  long,  nar- 
row, hard,  grayish,  pointed,  grooved,  rolled  in,  smooth 
behind  and  rough  on  the  inner  surface.  It  flowers  in 
July.  Differs  from  the  common  beach  grass  in  having 
a  short,  obtuse  ligule,  and  spikelets  without  footstalks, 
of  three  or  four  florets,  while  beach  grass  has  a  long 
and  pointed  ligule,  and  spikelets  with  footstalks,  and 
of  only  one  floret. 


120  THE    HAIR    GRASSES. 

Sinclair  calls  this  grass  the  sugar-cane  of  Great 
Britain.  It  contains  a  large  quantity  of  saccharine 
matter,  and  it  is  probable  that  mixed  with  beach  grass, 
as  it  is  in  Holland,  it  would  be  valuable  to  cut  up  and 
mix  with  common  hay  for  winter  feed.  It  is  used  pre- 
cisely as  beach  grass  is  here,  to  prevent  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  sea,  and  to  arrest  the  drifting  sand.  It 
was  introduced  by  the  Patent  Office,  and  cultivated  in 
various  parts  of  the  country. 

BOTTLE-BRUSH  GRASS  (Elymus  Hystrix]  is  found  rather 
commonly  in  moist,  rocky  woodlands,  and  along  shaded 
banks  of  streams,  and  may  be  known  by  its  loose,  up- 
right spike  and  spreading  spikelets,  smooth  sheaths  and 
leaves,  smoothish  flowers  tipped  with  an  awn  three  times 
their  length.  Flowers  in  July.  It  is  referred  by  Gray 
to  the  genus  Gymnostichum,  as  it  differs  from  other 
species  of  Elymus,  in  having  no  glumes.  The  differ- 
ence is  slight,  as  the  glumes  are  often  more  or  less 
developed.  The  spike  has  the  appearance  of  a  bottle- 
brush,  when  ripe. 

47.  AIRA.  Hair  Grasses. 

Two-flowered  spikelets,  in  an  open,  diffuse  panicle ; 
flowers  both  perfect,  shorter  than  the  glumes,  hairy  at 
the  base  ;  lower  palea  three  to  five  nerved,  awned  on 
the  back;  grain  oblong,  smooth. 

WOOD  HAIR  GRASS,  or  COMMON  HAIR  GRASS  (Aira 
flexuosa\  is  a  common  grass  on  our  dry  and  rocky  hills 
and  roadsides.  Stems  slender,  one  to  two  feet  high, 
nearly  naked ;  leaves  dark  green,  often  curved,  bristle- 
formed;  branches  of  the  panicle  hairy,  spreading,  mostly 
in  pairs;  lower  palea  slightly  toothed ;  awn  starting  near 
the  base,  bent  in  the  middle,  longer  than  the  glumes, 
which  are  purplish.  Perennial.  Flowers  in  June.  This 
plant  is  sometimes  found  thirty-five  hundred  feet  above 


TUFTED     HAIR    GRASS. 


121 


the  level  of  the  sea.  Sheep  eat  it  readily.  Of  little 
value  for  cultivation.  Fig.  93  represents  it  in  blossom, 
and  Fig.  94  a  magnified  flower. 

TUFTED    HAIR    GRASS 
(Aira  ccespitosa)  also  be- 
longs    to     this     genus. 
Stems  erect,  round,  rough- 
ish,  in  close  tufts ;  leaves 
flat,    linear,   acute,   with 
roughish  striated  sheaths, 
upper  sheath  longer  than 
its  leaf;    panicle  pyram- 
idal or  oblong,  large,  at 
first  drooping,  afterwards 
erect,  with  its  branches 
spreading  in  every  direc- 
tion ;    awn  barely  equal- 
ling the  palea;  outer  palea 
of   lower    floret   shorter 
than   the  glumes ;   mem- 
branous, jagged,  or  four- 
toothed,  on  the  summit, 
hairy  at   the  base,  with 
slender  awn  rising  from 
a  little   above  the  base, 
and    extending    scarcely 
above    the    palea.      Dis- 
tinguished from  wood 
hair  grass  in  the  awn 
of  the  lower  floret  not 
protruding  beyond  the 
glumes  of  the  calyx. 
In    wood    hair    grass 
the  awn  of  the  lower 

Fig.  93.     Wood  Hair  Grass.        Fig.  94. 
11 


122 


WATER    HAIR    GRASS. 


floret  protrudes  more  than  one-third  its  length  beyond 
the  glumes. 

It  has  an  unsightly  look  in  fields  and  pastures,  on 


Fip.  96.   Wild  Oat  Grass.    Fig.  97.  Fig.  95.    Water  Hair  G 


WILD    OAT    GRASS.  123 

account  of  its  growing  in  tufts,  clusters,  or  hassocks. 
Cattle  seldom  touch  it.  Natural  to  stiif  or  marshy  bot- 
toms, where  the  water  stands.  Flowers  in  June. 

PURPLE  ALPINE  HAIR  GRASS  (Aira  atropurpurea)  is 
another  species  found  on  the  top  of  the  White  Moun- 
tains, in  New  Hampshire,  growing  from  eight  to  fifteen 
inches  high,  with  flat  and  rather  wide  leaves. 

WATER  HAIR  GRASS  (Aira  aquatica),  Fig.  95.  —  This 
grass  Mr.  Curtis  calls  the  sweetest  of  the  British 
grasses,  and  equal  to  any  foreign  one.  Its  stems  and 
leaves,  when  green,  have  a  sweet  and  agreeable  taste, 
like  that  of  liquorice.  Water  fowls  are  said  to  be  very 
fond  of  the  seeds  and  the  fresh  green  shoots,  and  cattle 
eat  it  very  readily.  It  is  strictly  an  aquatic,  but  can 
be  cultivated  on  imperfectly  drained  bogs. 

48.  DANTHONIA. 

Lower  pale  seven  to  nine  nerved,  with  a  flat  and  spi- 
rally twisting  awn  made  of  the  three  middle  nerves.  In 
other  respects  nearly  like  Avena. 

WILD  OAT  GRASS,  WHITE  TOP,  OLD  FOG  (Danthonia 
spicata),  Fig.  96,  is  common  in  dry,  sunny  pastures, 
with  a  stem  one  foot  high,  slender,  with  short  leaves, 
narrow  sheaths,  bearded  ;  panicle  simple  ;  spikelets 
seven-flowered  ;  lower  palea  broadly  ovate,  loosely 
hairy  on  the  back,  longer  than  its  awl-shaped  teeth  — 
perennial.  Flowers  in  June.  It  is  called  white  top  in 
some  localities,  but  is  not  the  grass  most  commonly 
known  by  that  name.  Its  spikelet  appears  magnified  in 
Fig.  97;  its  lower  pale,  in  Fig.  98 ;  its  upper  pale,  in  Fig. 
99 ;  its  seed,  in  Fig.  100. 

49.  TRISETUM. 

Spikelets  two  to  seven  flowered,  often  in  a  contracted 
panicle ;  lower  pale  compressed,  keeled,  with  a  bent  awn 
on  the  back. 


124 


DOWNY    OAT    GRASS. 


DOWNY  PERSOON  ( Trisetum.,  molle)  is  a  grass  with 
dense  panicles,  much  contracted,  oblong  or  linear,  awn 
bent  or  diverging ;  lower  palea  compressed,  keeled ; 


Fig.  101.    Downy  Oat  Gnus. 


Fig.  102.    Meadow  Oat  Grass. 


MEADOW    OAT    GRASS.  125 

leaves  flat  and  short ;  found  on  rocky  river-banks  and 
mountains,  about  one  foot  high.  It  flowers  in  July. 
Of  no  agricultural  value. 

MARSH  OAT  GRASS  (Trisetum  palustre)  is  a  species 
found  in  low  grounds,  from  New  York  to  Illinois,  and 
southward,  from  two  to  three  feet  high,  leaves  flat  and 
short,  spikelets  yellowish-white,  tinged  green;  panicle 
long,  narrow,  loose,  hairy  ;  spikelets  flat. 

The  DOWNY  OAT  GRASS  (Trisetum  pubescens}  is  a 
very  hardy  perennial  grass,  naturalized  on  chalky  soils, 
and  on  such  soils  its  leaves  are  covered  with  a  coating 
of  downy  hairs,  which  it  loses  when  cultivated  on  bet- 
ter lands.  It  is  regarded  as  a  good  permanent  pasture 
grass,  on  account  of  its  hardiness  and  its  being  but  a 
slight  impoverisher  of  the  soil,  and  yielding  a  larger 
per  cent,  of  bitter  extractive  than  other  grasses  grown 
on  poor,  light  soils.  It  is,  therefore,  recommended 
abroad  as  a  prominent  ingredient  of  mixtures  for  pas- 
tures. It  flowTers  early  in  July.  Fig.  101  represents 
this  plant  as  it  appears  in  blossom. 

50.  AVENA.  Oat. 

Spikelets  three  to  many  flowered,  with  an  open,  large, 
diffuse  panicle  ;  lower  pale  seven  to  eleven  nerved,  with 
a  long, usually  twisted  awn  on  the  back;  stamens  three  ; 
grain  oblong,  grooved  on  the  side,  usually  hairy  and  free. 

MEADOW  OAT  GRASS  (Avena  pro- 
tensis),  Pig.  102,  is  a  perennial  grass, 
native  of  the  pastures  of  Great  Bri- 
tain, growing  to  the  height  of  about 
eighteen  inches.  It  furnishes  a  hay 
of  medium  quality.  Flourishes  best 
on  dry  soils.  Flowers  in  July.  Figs. 
*U  103  and  104  represent  the  flowers 

*ig.io3.        Fig104'    of  this  grass  magnified. 
11* 


126 


YELLOW    OAT    GRASS. 


The  YELLOW  OAT  GRASS  (Aqena  Jlavescem),  Fig.  105, 
can  scarcely,  perhaps,  be  regarded  as  naturalized  here. 
It  is  a  perennial  plant  of  slow 
growth   and   medium   quality, 
cultivated  to   some  extent  in 
France,   and   suitable  for  dry 
meadows  and  pastures.     It  is 
sometimes  regarded  as  a  weed. 
It  fails,  if  cultivated  alone,  but 
succeeds   with  other  grasses, 
and   is   said   to   be   the   most 
useful  for  fodder  of  any  of  the 
oat  grasses.    It  seems  to  grow 
best   with   the   crested    dog's 
tail  and  sweet-scented  vernal. 
It  contains  a  larger  proportion 
of  bitter  extractive  than  most 
other  grasses,  and  for  that  rea- 
son is  recommended  by  some 
English  writers  as  a  valuable 
pasture   grass.      It  flowers  in 
July.     Fig.  106  represents  the 
flower  of  this  grass  magnified. 
PURPLE  WILD   OAT  (Avena 
striata)    is    found    on   rocky, 
shaded      hillsides, 
from     New    Eng- 
land     and      New 
York,    northward. 
Stems  tufted,  from 
one    to    two    feet 
high,  and  slender ; 
leaves       narrow  ; 
panicle  loose  and 


Fig.  105.     Yellow  Oat  Grass. 


Fig.  106. 


TALL    OAT    GRASS.  127 

drooping,  when  ripe  ;  lower  pale  with  a  short,  bearded 
tuft  at  the  base.     It  blossoms  in  June. 

EARLY  WILD  OAT  (Avena  prcecox)  is  a  dwarf  species, 
found  in  sandy  fields  from  New  Jersey  to  Virginia, 
growing  only  from  three  to  four  inches  high  j  leaves 
short  and  bristle-shaped. 

The  COMMON  OAT  (Avena  sativa)  is  well  known  to 
every  farmer.  —  See  next  chapter. 

51.  ARRHENATHERDM.  Oat  Grass. 

Spikelets  two-flowered  and  a  rudiment  of  a  third,  open ; 
lowest  flower  staminate  or  sterile,  with  a  long  bent  awn 
below  the  middle  of  the  back. 

TALL  MEADOW  OAT  GRASS,  or  TALL  OAT  GRASS  (Ar- 
rhenatherum  avenaceum),  is  the  avena  elatior  of  Linnasus. 
Spikelets  open  panicled,  two-flowered,  lower  flower 
stamiuate,  bearing  a  long  bent  awn  below  the  middle  of 
the  back ;  leaves  flat,  acute,  roughish  on  both  sides, 
most  on  the  inner ;  panicle  leaning  slightly  on  one  side ; 
glumes  very  unequal;  stems  from  two  to  three  feet 
high  ;  root  perennial,  fibrous,  sometimes  bulbous.  It  is 
readily  distinguished  from  other  grasses  by  its  having 
two  florets,  the  lower  one  having  a  long  awn  rising 
from  a  little  above  the  base  of  the  outer  palea.  Intro- 
duced. Flowers  from  May  to  July.  Shown  in  Fig.  107. 
A  magnified  spikelet  is  seen  in  Fig.  108. 

This  is  the  Ray  grass  of  France.  It  produces  an 
abundant  supply  of  foliage,  and  is  valuable  for  pasture 
on  account  of  its  early  and  luxuriant  growth.  It  is 
often  found  on  the  borders  of  fields  and  hedges,  woods 
and  pastures,  and  is  sometimes  very  plenty  in  mowing 
lands.  After  being  mown  it  shoots  up  a  very  thick 
aftermath,  and,  on  this  account,  parti}7,  is  regarded  as 
nearly  equal  for  excellence  to  the  common  meadow  fox- 


128 


TALL  MEADOW  OAT  GRASS. 


tail.     It  has  been  highly  recommended  for  soiling,  as 
furnishing  an  early  supply  of  fodder. 


Pig.  107.    Tall  Meadow  Oat  Grass. 


Fig.  108. 


MEADOW  SOFT  GRASS.  129 

It  grows  spontaneously  on  deep,  sandy  soils,  when 
once  naturalized.  It  has  been  cultivated  to  some  ex- 
tent in  New  England,  and  was  at  one  time  highly 
esteemed,  mainly  for  its  early,  rapid,  and  late  growth, 
making  it  very  well  calculated  as  a  permanent  pasture 
grass.  It  will  succeed  on  tenacious  clover  soils. 

52.  HOLCUS.     Meadow  Soft  Grass. 

Spikelets  two-flowered,  jointed  with  the  pedicels; 
glumes  boat-shaped,  membranaceous,  enclosing  and  ex- 
ceeding the  flowers ;  lower  flower  perfect,  its  lower 
palea  awnless  and  pointless;  upper  flower  staminate 
only,  bearing  a  stout  bent  awn  below  the  apex.  Sta- 
mens three ;  grain  free,  slightly  grooved. 

MEADOW  SOFT  GRASS,  VELVET  GRASS  (Holcus  lana- 
tus),  has  its  spikelets  crowded  in  a  somewhat  open  pani- 
cle, and  an  awn  with  the  lower  part  perfectly  smooth. 

It  grows  from  one  to  two  feet  high ;  stem  erect, 
round  ;  root  perennial,  fibrous ;  leaves  four  or  five,  with 
soft,  downy  sheaths;  upper  sheath  much  longer  than  its 
leaf,  inflated,  ligule  obtuse;  joints  usually  four,  gen- 
erally covered  with  soft,  downy  hairs,  the  points  of 
which  are  turned  downwards ;  leaves  pale-green,  flat, 
broad,  acute,  soft  on  both  sides,  covered  with  delicate 
slender  hairs.  Inflorescence  compound  panicled,  of  a 
greenish,  reddish,  or  pinkish  tinge ;  hairy  glumes, 
oblong,  tipped  with  a  minute  bristle.  Florets  of  two 
paleee.  Flowers  in  June.  Introduced.  It  is  seen  in 
Fig.  109,  and  its  flowers  magnified  in  Figs.  Ill  and  112. 

This  beautiful  grass  grows  in  moist  fields  and  peaty 
soils,  but  I  have  found  it  on  dry,  sandy  soils,  and  on 
upland  fields,  where  it  was  cultivated  with  other  grasses. 
It  is  productive  and  easy  of  cultivation,  but  of  very  little 
value  either  for  pasture  or  hay,  cattle  not  being  fond 
of  it.  When  once  introduced  it  will  readily  spread 


130  CREEPING    SOFT    GEASS. 

from  its  light  seeds,  which  an?  easily  dispersed  by  the 


Fig.  109.    Meadow  Soft  Grass. 


Tig.  110.    Creeping  Soft  Gnw*. 


HOLY    GRASS.  131 

wind.     It  does  not  merit  cultivation  except  on  poor, 
peaty  lands,  where  better  grasses  will  not  succeed. 


Fig.  111.  Fig.  112.  Fig-  113.  Fig.  114. 

The  CREEPING  SOFT  GRASS  (Holcus  mottis),  Fig.  110, 
is  of  no  value,  and  is  regarded  as  a  troublesome  weed. 
Distinguished  from  the  preceding  by  its  awned  floret 
and  its  creeping  root.  The  flowers  of  this  grass  are 
seen  magnified  in  Figs.  113  and  114. 

53.  HIEROCHLOA.  Holy  Grass. 

Panicle  open,"  spikelets  three-flowered ;  the  two 
lower  flowers  staminate ;  glumes  equalling  the  spikelet; 
leaves  linear,  flat. 

SENECA  GRASS,  or  VANILLA  GRASS  (Hierochloa  bore- 
alis),  has  spikelets  three-flowered ;  flowers  all  with  two 
paleas ;  branches  of  the  panicle  smooth ;  grows  from 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches  high.  Stems  erect,  round, 
smooth  ;  panicle  somewhat  spreading,  rather  one-sided  ; 
leaves  short,  broad,  lanceolate,  rough  on  the  inner  side, 
smooth  behind  ;  spikelets  rather  large.  Grows  in  wet 
meadows.  Flowers  in  May.  Common  and  generally 
diffused,  but  of  no  value  for  cultivation,  on  account  of 
its  powerful  creeping  roots,  and  very  slight  spring 
foliage. 

This  gniss  derived  its  generic  name,  Hierochloa,  holy 
grass,  from  two  Greek  words,  signifying  sacred  grass, 
from  the  fact  that  it  was  customary  to  strew  it  before 
the  doors  of  the  churches  on  festival  and  saint's  days, 
in  the  north  of  Europe.  In  Sweden  it  is  sold  to  be 


132  SWEET-SCENTED    VERNAL    GRASS. 

hung  up  over  beds,  where  it  is  supposed  to  induce 
sleep. 

ALPINE  HOLY  GRASS  (Hierochloa  Alpina)  is  found  on 
mountain-tops  in  New  England  and  New  York,  and 
northward.  Panicle  contracted,  from  one  to  two  inches 
long.  Lower  leaves  narrow.  Flowers  in  July.  Of  no 
value  for  cultivation. 

54.  ANTHOXANTHTJM. 

Spikelets  three-flowered  in  spiked  panicles ;  the  late- 
ral flowers  neutral,  consisting  only  of  one  pule,  hairy  on 
the  outside,  and  awned  on  the  back.  Glumes  very  thin, 
acute,  keeled,  the  upper  twice  the  length  of  the  lower, 
and  as  long  as  the  flowers. 

SWEET-SCENTED  VERNAL  GRASS  (Anthoxanthum  odo- 
ratum}.  —  Spikelets  spreading,  three-flowered ;  lateral 
flowers  neutral,  with  one  palea,  hairy  on  the  outside,  and 
awned  on  the  back ;  glumes  thin,  acute,  keeled,  the  upper 
twice  as  long  as  the  lower  ;  seed  ovate,  adhering  to  the 
palea  which  encloses  it:  root  perennial.  Flowers  in 
May  and  June.  Stems  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  feet 
high.  Introduced  from  Europe.  It  is  seen  in  Fig.  115. 

This  is  one  of  the  earliest  spring  grasses,  as  well  as 
one  of  the  latest  in  the  autumn,  and  is  almost  the  only 
grass  that  is  fragrant.  It  possesses  a  property  said  to 
be  peculiar  to  this  species,  or  possessed  by  only  a  few 
others,  known  as  benzoic  acid ;  and  it  is  said  to  be  this 
which  not  only  gives  it  its  own  aromatic  odor,  but 
imparts  it  to  other  grasses  with  which  it  is  cured.  The 
green  leaves  when  bruised  give  out  this  perfume  to  the 
fingers,  and  the  plant  may  thus  be  known.  It  possesses 
but  little  value  of  itself,  its  nutritive  properties  being 
slight ;  nor  is  it  much  relished  by  stock  of  any  kind ;  but 
as  a  pasture  grass,  with  a  large  mixture  of  other  species, 
it  is  valuable  for  its  early  growth. 


REED    CANARY    GRASS. 


133 


It  is  not  uncommon  in  our  pastures  and  roadsides, 
growing  as  if  it  were  indigenous. 


Fig.  115.   Sweet-scented  Vernal.       Fig  119. 
12 


Fig.  118.    Reed  Canary  Grass. 


134  SEEDS    OF    SWEET-SCENTED    VERNAL. 

The  aftermath  or  fall  growth  of  this  beautiful  grass  is 
said  to  be  richer  in  nutritive  qualities  than  the  growth 
of  the  spring.  Though  it  is  pretty  generally  diffused 
over  the  country,  it  is  only  on  certain  soils  that  it  takes 
complete  possession  of  the  surface,  and  forms  the  pre- 
dominant grass  in  a  permanent  turf. 

A  curious  and  beautiful  peculiarity  is  exhibited  in  the 
seeds  of  this  grass,  by  which  they  are  prevented  from 
germinating  in  wet  weather,  after  approach  ing  maturity, 
and  thus  becoming  abortive.  The  husks  of  the  blossom 
adhering  to  the  seed  when  ripe,  and  the  jointed  awn  by 
its  spiral  contortions,  when  affected  by  the  alternate 
moisture  and  dryness  of  the  atmosphere,  act  like  levers 
to  separate  and  lift  it  out  from  the  calyx,  even  before 
the  grass  is  bent  or  lodged,  and  while  the  spike  is  still 
erect.  If  the  hand  is  moistened,  and  the  seeds  placed 
in  it,  they  will  appear  to  move  like  insects,  from  the 
uncoiling  of  the  spiral  twist  of  the  awns  attached  to 
them. 

The  flowers  of  the  sweet-scented  vernal  grass  are 
seen  in  Figs.  116  and  117.  There  are  nine  hundred 
and  twenty-three  thousand  two  hundred  seeds  in  a 
pound,  and  eight  pounds  in  a  bushel.  It  cannot  be  said 
to  belong  to  the  grasses  useful  for  general  cultivation. 

55.  PHALARIS.  Canary  Grass. 

Spikelets  crowded  in  a  dense  spiked  panicle,  with 
two  neutral  rudiments  of  a  flower,  one  on  each  side,  at 
the  base  of  the  flatfish  perfect  one ;  awnless:  two  shining 
pales,  shorter  than  the  equal  boat-shaped  glumes,  closely 
enclosing  the  smooth,  flattened  grain ;  stamens  three. 

REED  CANARY  GRASS  (Plialaris  arundinacea)  has  a 
panicle  very  slightly  branched,  clustered,  somewhat 
spreading  when  old,  but  not  so  much  generally,  as  ap- 
pears in  Fig.  118;  glumes  wingless,  rudimentary  florets 


STRIPED    GRASS.  135 

hairy  ;  stem  round,  smooth,  erect,  from  two  to  seven  feet 
high;  leaves  five  or  six  in  number,  broad,  lightish-green, 
acute,  harsh,  flat-ribbed,  central  rib  the  most  promi- 
nent, roughish  on  both  surfaces, edges  minutely  toothed; 
smooth,  striated  sheaths.  Flowers  in  July.  It  grows 
on  wet  grounds  by  the  sides  of  rivers  and  standing 
pools.  There  are  about  five  hundred  thousand  grains 
or  seeds  of  tnis  grass  to  the  pound.  It  may  be  gathered 
and  sown  with  winter  grain,  to  be  ploughed  in  as  a 
green  manuring. 

A  beautiful  variety  of  this  species  is  the  RIBBON  or 
STRIPED  GRASS  of  the  gardens,  familiar  to  every  one. 
The  reed  canary  grass  will  bear  cutting  two  or  three 
times  in  a  season,  but  if  not  cut  early,  the  foliage  is 
coarse.  Cattle  are  not  very  fond  of  it  at  any  stage  of 
its  growth ;  but  if  cut  early  and  well  cured,  they  will 
eat  it  in  the  winter,  if  they  can  get  nothing  better.  For 
some  experiments  with  this  hay  in  comparison  with 
others,  see  page  106. 

This  grass  is  not  unfrequently  produced  by  trans- 
planting the  roots  of  the  striped  grass  into  suitable 
soils.  In  one  instance,  within  my  knowledge,  it  came 
in  and  produced  an  exceedingly  heavy  crop,  simply  from 
roots  of  ribbon  grass,  which  had  been  dug  up  from  a 
garden  and  thrown  into  the  brook,  to  get  them  out  of 
the  way.  Several  other  instances  of  a  similar  nature 
have  also  come  to  my  notice.  One  farmer  has  propa- 
gated it  extensively  in  his  wet  meadows  by  forcing  the 
ripe  seed-panicles  into  the  mud  with  his  feet.  As  the 
stripe  of  the  ribbon  grass  is  only  accidental,  dependent 
on  location  and  soil,  it  constitutes  only  a  variety  of  the 
reed  canary  grass,  and  loses  the  stripe  when  transferred 
to  a  wet  and  muddy  soil. 

The  cut,  Fig.  118,  was  made  from  a  specimen  too  far 
advanced  to  show  this  grass  as  it  ordinarily  appears  ; 


136  NUTRITIVE    QUALITIES. 

the  panicle  or  head  is  too  spreading,  and  not  sufficiently 
long.  I  have  fine  specimens  with  panicles  three  times 
as  long  as  appears  in  the  drawing,  and  more  in  the 
shape  of  a  spike  of  Timothy. 

To  ascertain  the  exact  nutritive  qualities  of  this  grass 
when  cured  as  hay,  a  careful  analysis  has  been  made,  at 
my  request,  by  Prof.  E.  N.  Horsford,  of  Cambridge, 
with  the  following  result :  Of  water,  the  specimen  con- 
tained 10.42  per  cent. ;  ash,  5.31  per  cent. ;  nitrogen, 
.55  per  cent. ;  nitrogenous  ingredients,  flesh-forming 
principles,  3.53  per  cent. ;  woody  fibre,  starch,  gum, 
sugar,  &c.,  80.73  per  cent.  It  will  be  seen,  by  reference 
to  a  subsequent  page,  containing  analyses,  by  Prof. 
Way,  that  this  grass  is  very  far  inferior  to  many  other 
grasses  examined  by  him.  The  panicles  of  this  grass, 
if  allowed  to  stand  after  the  time  of  flowering,  become 
filled  with  ergot,  or  long,  black  spurs,  issuing  from 
between  the  glumes,  and  occupying  the  place  of  grain. 
This,  if  there  were  no  other  reason,  would  be  sufficient 
to  determine  that  it  should  be  cut  at  or  before  the  time 
of  flowering.  I  have  never  seen  rye  worse  affected 
than  my  specimens  of  this  grass  are.  The  effects  of 
this  mysterious  disease  are  well  known.  The  noxious 
power  it  exerts  on  the  system  of  animals,  which  receive 
even  a  small  portion  of  it,  is  oftentimes  dreadful,  pro- 
ducing "  most  horrible  gangrenes,  rotting  of  the  extrem- 
ities, internal  tortures,  and  agonizing  death.  It  has 
been  known  to  slough  and  kill  not  a  few  human  beings, 
who  have  accidentally  or  inadvertently  eaten  grain  or 
flour  infected  with  it." 

The  flower  of  the  reed  canary  grass  is  shown  in 
Fig.  119.  The  variety  called  striped  grass  (Colorata) 
is  exceedingly  hardy,  and  may  be  propagated  to  any 
extent  by  dividing  and  transplanting  the  roots.  In 
moist  soils  it  spreads  rapidly,  and  forms  a  thick  mass  of 


MILLET    GEASSES.  137 

fodder,  which  might  be  repeatedly  cut  without  injury, 
though  it  is  of  little  value  for  feeding  stock. 

The  COMMON  CANAEY  GRASS  (Phalaris  Canariensis) 
is  cultivated  in  gardens,  and  to  some  extent  in  fields 
and  waste  places,  for  the  sake  of  the  seed  for  the  canary- 
bird.  It  has  a  spiked,  oval  panicle;  glumes  wing- 
keeled  ;  rudimentary  flowers  smooth,  and  half  the 
length  of  the  perfect  one.  Flowers  in  July  and  August. 

56.  MILIUM.  Millet  Grass. 

Spikelets  diffusely  panicled,  not  jointed  with  their 
pedicels  ;  stamens  three  ;  stigmas  branched  ;  grain  not 
grooved,  enclosed  in  the  pales,  all  falling  together. 

MILLET  GRASS  (Milium  effusum]  is  found  growing 
commonly  in  moist,  shady  woods,  mountain  meadows, 
and  on  the  borders  of  streams.  Panicle  widely  diffuse, 
compound ;  glumes  ovate,  very  obtuse  ;  leaves  broad 
and  flat,  thin  ;  root  perennial ;  flower  oblong.  Flowers 
in  June.  Introduced.  Of  no  value  for  cultivation,  ex- 
cept as  a  green  manuring  plant,  the  foliage  possessing 
but  slight  nutritive  qualities.  The  seeds  are  millet-like, 
one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  to  the  pound,  and  are 
sought  by  birds.  It  will  thrive  transplanted  to  open 
places. 

DOUBLE-BEARING  MILLET  GRASS  (Milium  pursliii]  is 
found  on  the  moist,  sandy  pine  barrens  of  New  Jersey. 
Referred  by  Gray  to  Amphicarpum. 

57.  CYNOSURUS. 

Spikelets  three  to  five  flowered,  with  a  comb-like  in- 
volucre at  the  base  of  each  ;  inflorescence  racemed ; 
florets  tipped  with  a  rough  awn. 

CRESTED  DOG'S-TAIL  (Cynosurus  cristatus). —  Fig. 
120.  This  grass  is  rarely  found  here,  but  has  been 

12* 


138 


CRESTED  DOG'S-TAIL. 


introduced  and  cultivated  to  some  extent  by  way  of 
experiment.  Its  spikes  are  simple,  linear  ;  spikelets 
awnless  ;  stems  one  foot  high, 
stiff,  smooth  ;  root  perennial, 
fibrous,  and  tufted.  Flowers 
in  July.  It  is  said  to  be  a 
valuable  permanent  pasture 
grass  ;  but  cattle  seldom  eat 
it  after  it  is  ripe,  on  account 
of  its  wiry  stems.  On  dry, 
hard  soils  and  hills,  pastured 
with  sheep,  it  would  doubtless 
be  of  value  for  its  hardiness. 
At  the  time  of  flowering  it 
is  tender  and  nutritious.  A 
magnified  spikelet  is  shown  in 
Fig.  121. 

The  stems  of  this  grass  are 
used  for  the  manufacture  of 
plat  for  Leghorn  hats  and 
bonnets,  and  have  the  reputa- 
tion of  being  equal  or  superior 
to  Italian  straw.  They  are 
gathered  green  when  in  blos- 
som, immersed  in  boiling 
water 


for 


Crested  Dog's-tai,. 

then  spread    them    out, 


ten  minutes,  and 
then  spread  out 
to  bleach  for 
eight  days.  An- 
other mode  of 
treatment  is  to 
keep  them  in 
boiling  water  for 
an  hour,  and 
them  moistened 


JOINT    GRASS.  139 

^  regularly  till  they  become  dried,  or  for  two  days,  when 
they  are  placed  in  a  tight  vessel  and  subjected  to  the 
fumes  of  burning  sulphur  for  two  hours. 

58.  PASPALUM. 

Spikelets  spiked,  or  somewhat  racemed,  in  two  or 
four  rows  on  one  side  of  a  flattened  rachis,  jointed,  with 
thin,  short  pedicels,  awnless,  apparently  but  one- 
flowered,  and  differing  from  Panicum  in  wanting  the 
lower  glume.  Stamens  three. 

FLOATING  PASPALUM  (Paspalum  fluitans]  is  a  grass 
found  in  low  swamps  from  Virginia  to  Illinois,  and 
southward.  Stems  smooth,  and  rooting  in  the  mud 
or  floating.  Of  no  value  for  cultivation. 

HAIRY  SLENDER  PASPALUM  (Paspalum  setaceum)  has 
an  erect  or  decumbent,  slender  culm,  from  one  to  two 
feet  high,  leaves  and  sheaths  hairy ;  spikes  slender, 
smooth,  mostly  solitary,  on  a  long  peduncle,  spikelets 
narrowly  two-rowed.  Flowers  in  August.  It  is  found 
on  sandy  fields  and  plains  near  the  coast,  and  is  rather 
common  from  Massachusetts  to  Illinois,  and  south- 
ward. 

SMOOTH  ERECT  PASPALUM  (Paspalum  Iceve)  is  also 
found  on  moist  soils,  from  New  England  to  Kentucky, 
and  southward.  It  has  an  erect,  stout  stem,  from  one 
to  three  feet  high ;  leaves  long  and  large,  with  smooth 
or  slightly  hairy  flattened  sheaths ;  spikelets  broadly 
two-rowed.  Flowers  in  August. 

JOINT  GRASS  (Paspalum  distichum)  is  common  on 
wet  fields  in  Virginia  and  southward,  flowering  in  July 
and  August.  It  grows  about  a  foot  high,  from  a  long, 
creeping  base.  Spikes  short  and  closely  flowered ; 
rachis  flat  on  the  back ;  spikelets  egg-shaped  and  slightly 
pointed. 


140  THE    PANIC    GRASSES. 

FINGER-SHAPED  PASPALUM  (Paspalum  digitaria)  is 
also  found  in  Virginia,  and  further  south,  growing  from 
one  to  two  feet  high;  spikes  slender  and  sparsely- 
flowered. 

59.  PANICUM.  Panic  Grasses. 

Spikelets  panicled  or  racemed,  sometimes  spiked ; 
glumes  two,  the  lower  one  short,  minute,  or  wanting  ; 
lower  flower  neutral,  rarely  awiied ,  upper  perfect; 
stamens  three  ;  stigmas  usually  purple. 

SLENDER  CRAB  GRASS  (Panicum  filiforme)  is  an 
annual  finger  grass,  somewhat  resembling  the  Finger- 
shaped  Paspalum,  but  the  upper  glume  equals  the  flower, 
while  the  lower  is  nearly  wanting,  and  the  spikes  are 
more  erect.  It  flourishes  on  sandy,  dry  soils,  especially 
near  the  coast.  Flowers  in  August. 

SMOOTH  CRAB  GRASS  (Panicum  glabrum]  resembles 
the  last,  with  the  spikes  digitate,  three  to  four,  spread- 
ing ;  rachis  flat  and  thin,  spikelets  ovoid.  It  is  common 
in  cultivated  grounds,  waste  places,  and  on  sandy  fields. 
Flowers  in  August  and  September.  A  troublesome 
weed. 

FINGER  GRASS,  COMMON  CRAB  GRASS  (Panicum  san- 
guinale}.  —  The  panic  grasses  are  widely  spread  and 
common  all  over  the  country. 

The  stems  of  the  Finger  Grass  are  from  one  to  two 
feet  high,  erect,  spreading ;  leaves  and  sheaths  hairy ; 
spikes  four  to  fifteen ;  digitate ;  upper  glume  half  the 
length  of  the  flower ;  lower  one  small.  It  grows  on 
waste  or  neglected  cultivated  grounds  and  gardens,  and 
yards,  and  is  generally  regarded  as  a  troublesome  weed. 
Introduced.  Flowers  from  August  to  October. 

DOUBLE-HEADED  PANIC  (Panicum  anceps)  is  found 
on  the  wet  pine  barrens  of  New  Jersey  to  Virginia,  and 


PROLIFIC    PANIC.  141 

south.     Stems  flat,  two  to  four  feet  high.     Flowers  in 
August. 

AGROSTIS-LIKE  PANIC  GRASS  (Panicum  agrostoides) 
has  flattened,  upright  stems,  two  feet  high ;  leaves  long, 
sheaths  smooth ;  spikelets  on  the  spreading  branches, 
crowded,  and  one-sided,  ovate,  oblong,  acute,  purplish. 
It  is  common  on  wet  meadows  and  borders  of  rivers, 
from  Massachusetts  to  Virginia,  Illinois,  and  southward. 
Flowers  in  July  and  August. 

PROLIFIC  PANIC  GRASS  (Panicum  proliferum)  grows 
on  brackish  marshes  and  meadows,  and  is  common 
along  the  coast  from  Massachusetts  southward,  and 
along  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  Rivers.  It  sometimes 
appears  on  dry  places.  Cattle  are  fond  of  it.  It  differs 
from  the  preceding  in  having  culms  thickened,  succu- 
lent, branched,  and  bent,  ascending  from  a  procumbent 
base,  and  spikelets  appressed,  lance-oval,  of  a  pale-green 
color. 

HAIR-STALKED  PANIC  GRASS  (Panicum  capillare) 
grows  in  sandy  soils  and  cultivated  fields  everywhere. 
Its  culm  is  upright,  often  branched  at  the  base,  and 
forming  a  tuft;  sheaths  flattened,  very  hairy;  panicle 
pyramidal,  hairy,  compound,  and  very  loose  ;  spikelets 
scattered,  on  long  pedicels,  oblong,  pointed.  Flowers 
in  August  and  September. 

AUTUMN  PANIC  (Panicum  autumnale)  grows  about 
a  foot  high,  with  very  slender  stems,  branching  below. 
Found  from  Illinois  southward. 

TALL  SMOOTH  PANIC  GRASS  (Panicum  virgatum). — 
Stems  upright,  three  to  five  feet  high ;  leaves  very  long, 
flat ;  panicle  large,  loose,  and  compound ;  branches 
spreading  when  grown,  and  drooping;  spikelets  scat- 
tered, oval,  pointed ;  glumes  usually  purplish.  Grows 


142  COMMON    MILLET. 

pretty  commonly  in  moist,  sandy;  soils,  especially  at  the 
South  ;  flowers  in  August. 

BITTER  PANIC  (Panicum  amarum)  is  found  on  sandy 
shores,  from  Connecticut  to  Virginia,  and  further  south. 
Flowers  in  August  and  September. 

BROAD-LEAVED  PANIC  GRASS  (Panicum  latifoUum).  — 
This  is  a  grass  with  a  perennial,  fibrous  root,  and  stem 
from  one  to  two  feet  high ;  with  leaves  broad,  long, 
taper-pointed,  smooth  or  slightly  downy;  branches  of 
panicle  spreading;  spikelets  long,  obovate,  downy. 
Flowers  in  June  and  July.  It  is  common  in  moist 
thickets  and  woods.  Of  no  value  for  cultivation. 

The  HIDDEN-FLOWERED  PANIC  GRASS  (Panicum  clan- 
destinum)  is  found  in  low  thickets,  and  on  the  banks  of 
streams,  from  one  to  three  feet  high,  very  leafy  to  the 
top,  the  joints  naked  ;  sheaths  rough,  and  bearing  very 
stiff  and  spreading  bristly  hairs.  Flowers  from  July  to 
September. 

YELLOW  PANIC  GRASS  (Panicum  xanthophysum) 
grows  on  dry,  sandy  soils,  from  Maine  to  Wisconsin, 
and  northward.  It  is  of  a  yellowish-green  color,  the 
spikelets  downy ;  sheaths  hairy  ;  leaves  lanceolate, 
acute,  smooth,  except  on  the  margins. 

STICKY  PANIC  GRASS  (Panicum  viscidum)  grows 
with  an  upright  stem,  leafy  to  the  top,  densely  velvety, 
downy  all  over,  including  the  sheaths,  with  reflexed, 
soft,  often  clammy  hairs,  except  a  ring  below  the  joint; 
panicles  spreading;  spikelets  long  and  downy.  Moist 
soils,  from  New  Jersey  to  Virginia,  and  southward. 

COMMON  MILLET  (Panicum  miliaceum). — Flowers  in 
large,  open,  nodding  panicles ;  leaves  lance-shaped, 
broad ;  stem  one  to  two  feet  high ;  native  of  Turkey. 
It  is  shown  in  Fig.  122. 

Many  varieties  of  millet  have  at  times  been   culti- 


COMMON    MILLET. 


143 


vated  in  this  country,  and  its  culture  is  gaining  favor 
every  year.  Millet  is  one  of 
the  best  crops  we  have  for  cut- 
ting and  feeding  green  for  soil- 
ing purposes,  since  its  yield  is 
large,  its  luxuriant  leaves  juicy 
and  tender,  and  much  relished 
by  milch  cows  and  other  stock. 

The  seed  is  rich  in  nutritive 
qualities,  but  it  is  very  seldom 
ground  or  used  for  flour, 
though  it  is  said  to  exceed  all 
other  kinds  of  meal  or  flour  in 
nutritive  elements.  An  acre, 
well  cultivated,  will  yield  from 
sixty  to  seventy  bushels  of 
seed.  Cut  in  the  blossom,  as 
it  should  be,  for  feeding  to 
cattle,  the  seed  is  comparatively 
valueless.  If  allowed  to  ripen 
its  seed,  the  stalk  is  no  more 
nutritious,  probably,  than  oat 
straw. 

Millet  requires  good  soil,  and 
is  rather  an  exhausting  crop, 
but  yields  a  produce  valuable  in 
proportion  to  the  richness  of 
the  soil,  and  care  and  expense 
of  cultivation. 

FEW-FLOWERED  PANIC  (Pani- 
cum  pauciftoruni)  is  found  in 
wet  meadows,  from  New  York 
to  Wisconsin,  and  southward. 
Stems  upright,  from  one  to  two 

Fig.  122.     Common  Millet. 


144  BARN    GRASS. 

feet  long,  roughish ;  panicle   open.     Flowers  in  June 
and  July. 

POLYMORPHUS  PANIC  (Panicum  dicJiotomum}  is  com- 
mon in  all  parts  of  the  country,  on  dry  and  low  grounds. 
Lower  glume  roundish,  one-third  or  a  quarter  the  length 
of  the  five  to  seven  nerved  upper  one. 

WORTHLESS  PANIC  (Panicum  depauperatum)  is  also 
common  northward,  in  dry  woods  and  hills.  Stems 
simple,  forming  close  tufts,  terminated  by  a  simple  and 
few-flowered  contracted  panicle,  often  overtopped  by 
the  upper  leaves. 

WARTY  PANIC  (Panicum  verrucosum)  is  found  in 
sandy  swamps,  near  the  coast,  from  New  England  to 
Virginia,  and  southward.  Stems  branching  and  slender, 
smooth,  one  to  two  feet  high ;  leaves  shining ;  branches 
of  the  diffuse  panicle  slender,  few-flowered ;  spikelets 
oval,  roughish  with  warts,  dark-green.  Flowers  in 
August. 

BARN  GRASS,  or  BARN-YARD  GRASS  (Panicum  crus-galli], 
is  very  common.  Its  spikes  are  alternate  and  in  pairs, 
sheaths  smooth,  rachis  bristly  ;  stem  from  two  to  four 
feet  high,  stout,  erect,  or  somewhat  procumbent ;  leaves 
half  an  inch  broad ;  panicle  dense,  pyramidal ;  glumes 
acute  ;  awn  variable  in  length,  and  sometimes  wanting ; 
outer  palea  of  the  neutral  flower  usually  awned.  One 
or  two  varieties  have  rough  or  bristly  sheaths.  It 
grows  on  moist,  rich,  or  manured  soils,  and  along  the 
coast  in  ditches.  Flowers  in  August,  September,  and 
October. 

Some  experiments  have  been  made  to  cultivate  this 
common  species  in  the  place  of  millet,  to  cut  for  green 
fodder.  It  is  relished  by  stock,  and  is  very  succulent 
and  nutritive,  while  its  yield  is  large. 


HUNGARIAN    GRASS.  145 

HUNGARIAN  GRASS,  HUNGARIAN  MILLET  (Panicum 
Germanicum),\}'ds  been  cultivated  to  considerable  extent 
in  this  coun- 
try, from  seed 
received  from  gj 
France  thro' 
theU.S.Patent 
Office. 

It  is  an  an- 
nual forage  plant,  introduced  into 
France  in  1815,  where  its  cultiva- 
tion has  become  considerably  ex- 
tended. It  germinates  readily, 
withstands  the  drought  remarkably, 
remaining  green  even  when  other 
vegetation  is  parched  up,  and  if  its 
development  is  arrested  by  dry 
weather,  the  least  rain  will  restore 
it  to  vigor.  It  has  numerous  suc- 
culent leaves,  which  furnish  an 
abundance  of  green  fodder,  very 
much  relished  by  all  kinds  of  stock. 
It  is  shown  in  Fig.  123. 

It  flourishes  in  somewhat  light 
and  dry  soils,  though  it  attains  its 
greatest  luxuriance  in  soils  of 
medium  consistency  and  well  ma- 
nured. It  may  be  sown  broadcast, 
and  cultivated  precisely  like  the 
varieties  of  millet. 

This  grass  is  thought  to  contain 
a  somewhat  higher  percentage  of 
nutriment  than  the  common  millet, 
though  I  am  not  aware  that  it  has 
been  analyzed.  It  is  a  leafy  plant,  Fig.  123.  Hungarian  Grass 


146  BOTTLE    GRASS. 

and  remains  green  until  its  se.eds  mature,  and  is  no 
doubt  valuable  for  fodder,  both  green  and  dry,  growing 
and  maturing  in  about  the  same  time  as  common  millet. 
From  twenty-five  to  thirty  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre 
have  been  obtained. 

60.  SETARIA. 

Spikelets  as  in  the  genus  Panicum,  awnless,  with 
short  peduncles  or  flower-stalks  produced  beyond 
them  into  solitary  or  clustered  bristles,  like  awns.  In- 
florescence in  dense,  spiked  panicles,  or  cylindrical 
spikes.  Annuals. 

The  BRISTLY  FOXTAIL  (Setaria  vertidllata)  is  a  grass 
sometimes,  though  rarely,  found  about  farm-houses.  It 
has  cylindrical  spikes  two  or  three  inches  long,  pale- 
green,  somewhat  interrupted  with  whorled,  short  clus- 
ters, bristles  single  or  in  pairs,  roughened  or  barbed 
downwards,  short. 

BOTTLE  GRASS,  sometimes  called  FOXTAIL  (Setaria 
glauca).  —  This  is  an  annual,  with  a  stem  from  one  to 
three  feet  high ;  leaves  broad,  hairy  at  the  base  ;  sheaths 
smooth  ;  ligule  bearded  ;  spike  two  to  three  inches  long, 
dense,  cylindrical ;  bristles  six  to  eleven  in  a  cluster, 
rough  upwards  ;  perfect  flower  wrinkled.  The  spike  is 
of  a  tawny  or  dull  orange-yellow,  when  old.  Flowers 
in  July.  It  is  common  in  cultivated  grounds  and  barn- 
yards. Introduced. 

The  GREEN  FOXTAIL,  sometimes  also  called  BOTTLE 
GRASS  (Setaria  viridis),  has  a  cylindrical  spike,  more  or 
less  compound,  green ;  bristles  few  in  a  cluster,  longer 
than  the  spikelets ;  flower  perfect,  striate  lengthwise 
and  dotted.  It  is  common  in  cultivated  grounds. 

The  BENGAL  GRASS,  sometimes  called  MILLET  (Setaria 
italica),  also  belongs  to  this  genus.  It  has  a  compound 


GAMA    GRASS.  147 

spike,  thick,  nodding,  six  to  nine  inches  long,  yellowish 
or  purplish  ;  bristles  two  or  three  in  a  cluster.  Intro- 
duced from  Europe. 

61.  CENCHRUS.  Bur  Grasses. 

Spikelets  enclosed,  one  to  five  together,  in  a  round- 
ish and  bristly  covering,  which  becomes  a  hard  bur. 

BUR  GRASS,  or  HEDGEHOG  GRASS  ( Cenchrus  tribuloides), 
is  somewhat  common  on  sandy  soils  on  the  coast,  or 
near  the  salt  water,  where  the  spikes  are  whitish,  and 
around  the  great  northern  lakes.  It  is  regarded  as  a 
troublesome  weed,  on  account  of  its  prickly  burs.  Stems 
branched  at  the  base,  from  one  to  two  feet  high ;  leaves 
flat ;  spike  oblong. 

62.  TRIPSACUM.  Gama  Grass. 

Spikelets  in  jointed  spikes,  staminate  above,  and  fer- 
tile below ;  staminate  spikelets  two,  both  alike  ;  two- 
flowered  ;  lower  glume  nerved ;  upper  boat-shaped ; 
pales  thin,  awnless ;  anthers  opening  by  two  pores  at 
the  apex ;  stems  tall  and  large,  solid,  from  thick,  creep- 
ing roots ;  leaves  broad  and  flat. 

GAMA  GRASS,  or  SESAME  GRASS  (Tripsacum  dacty- 
loides},  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  grasses, 
though  not  one  that  would  be  considered  of  much  value 
where  better  could  be  grown.  Its  stalk  is  from  four  to 
seven  feet  high,  and  the  leaves  look  not  very  unlike 
those  of  Indian  corn.  Grows  on  moist  soils,  near  the 
coast,  from  New  England  to  Pennsylvania,  west  to 
Illinois,  and  more  common  at  the  South,  in  Louisiana, 
and  adjoining  states,  where  it  is  indigenous.  It  is  a 
stout,  coarse,  and  hardy  grass. 

63.  ERIANTHUS.          Woolly  Beard. 

Spikelets  in  pairs  on  each  joint  of  the  slender  rachis, 
one  on  a  pedicel.,  the  other  connected  at  its  base,  crowded 


148 


FINGER-SPIKED    WOOD     GRASS. 


in  a  panicle,  and  clothed  with  loog,  silky  hairs.  Stamens 
one  to  three.  Grain  free. 

WOOLLY  BEARD  GRASS  (Erianthus  alopecuroides]  is 
found  on  the  wet  pine  barrens  of  New  Jersey,  in 
Illinois,  and  at  the  South.  It  grows  from  four  to  six 
feet  high ;  woolly-bearded  at  the  joints  ;  panicle  con- 
tracted ;  silky  hairs  longer  than  the  spikelets. 

SHORT-AWXED  WOOLLY  BEARD  (Erianthus  brevibarbis} 
is  also  found  on  low  grounds,  in  Virginia  and  southward, 
growing  from  two  to  five  feet  high,  and  somewhat 
bearded  at  the  upper  joints.  Panicle  rather  open. 

64.  AXDROPOGON. 

Spikelets  much  the  same  as  in 
the  preceding  genus,  bearing  a 
neuter  or  staminate  lower  flower ; 
glumes  and  paleae  often  wanting ; 
upper  flower  perfect ;  glumes  awn- 
less  ;  lower  palea  awned.  Flowers 
in  panicles  and  spikes.  Most  of 
these  grasses  are  coarse  and  hard 
perennials,  having  lateral  or  term- 
inal spikes,  commonly  clustered 
or  digitate,  with  the  rachis  hairy 
or  feathery-bearded. 

FINGER-SPIKED  WOOD  GRASS  (An- 
dropogon  furcatus)  grows  about 
four  feet  high  ;  leaves  nearly 
smooth  ;  spikes  digitate,  or  general- 
ly by  threes  and  fours  ;  lower 
flower  awnless;  the  spikelets  rough- 
ish,  downy  ;  the  awn  bent.  Flowers 
Fig.  125.  Fig.  lit.  in  September.  A  spike  of  this  grass 

is  shown  in  Fig.  124,  a  part  of  it  enlarged  in  Fig.  125, 
its  pistil  in  Fig.  126,  its  glumes  in  Fig.  127.  It  is  com- 
mon on  sterile  soils,  rocky  banks,  and  hill-sides. 


INDIAN    GRASS.  149 

PURPLE  WOOD  GRASS,  BROOM  GRASS  (Andropogon 
scoparius],  is  found  on  sterile,  sandy  soils,  flowering 
from  July  to  September.  It  grows  from  two  to  four 
feet  high,  with  many-branched  panicles ;  lower  sheaths 
an'd  narrow  leaves  hairy;  spikes  mostly  single, very  loose, 
slender,  slightly  silky,  with  dull,  white  hairs ;  rachis  zig- 
zag, hairy  along  the  edges. 

SILVER  BEARD  GRASS  (Andropogon  argenteus)  grows 
about  three  feet  high,  with  spikes  in  pairs,  on  peduncles 
exceeding  the  sheaths,  dense,  and  very  silky.  Common 
on  sterile,  sandy  soils,  in  Virginia  and  southward,  flow- 
ering in  September  and  October. 

VIRGINIAN  BEARD  GRASS  (Andropogon  Virginicus) 
grows  on  similar  soils  to  the  last,  from  New  York  to 
Illinois,  and  southward.  Stem  flattish  below ;  slender, 
short-branched  above ;  sheaths  smooth ;  spikes  soft, 
two  or  three  in  distant  clusters. 

CLUSTER-FLOWERED  BEARD  GRASS  (Andropogon  ma- 
crourus)  is  found  from  New  York  to  Virginia,  south- 
ward on  the  coast.  Stems  from  two  to  three  feet  high, 
bushy,  branched  at  the  summit,  with  many  spikes,  form- 
ing thick,  leafy  clusters  ;  sheaths  rough,  the  upper 
hairy. 

65.  SORGHUM. 

Spikelets  two  or  three  together,  in  an  open  panicle, 
the  lateral  ones  sterile,  middle  fertile  ;  stamens  three. 

INDIAN  GRASS,  WOOD  GRASS  (Sorghum  nutans),  is  a 
grass  sometimes  found  on  our  dry,  sterile  soils,  with  a 
panicle  oblong,  somewhat  compressed,  from  six  to  ten 
inches  long ;  stem  from  three  to  five  feet  high  ;  leaves 
linear,  grayish ;  sheaths  smooth ;  spikelets  light  brown 
and  glossy,  drooping  when  mature  ;  hairy  at  the  base  ; 
awn  twisted.  It  flowers  in  August. 
13* 


150  BROOM    CORN. 

INDIAN  MILLET  (Sorghum  vulgare)  is  a  cultivated 
species,  and  has  several  well-marked  varieties.  It  is 
called  Guinea  corn  in  the  West  Indies,  Dhourra  in  Ara- 
bia, Jova'ree  in  India,  and  Nagara  in  the  north  of  China. 
It  is  sometimes  used  as  a  forage  plant. 

The  tall  cereal,  which  has  long  been  cultivated  in  the 
south  of  Europe  and  in  Barbary,  under  the  general 
name  of  sorghum,  resembles  Indian  corn  in  quality,  and 
is  often  called  small  maize.  Its  stems  contain  a  pretty 
large  per  cent,  of  saccharine  matter,  and  it  is  useful  to 
cut  green  as  a  forage  plant. 

Indian  millet,  when  raised  on  good  soil  and  under 
favorable  circumstances,  is  said  to  yield  a  larger  quan- 
tity of  seed  to  the  acre  than  any  other  cereal  grass 
known,  not  excepting  even  Indian  corn.  Its  nutritive 
quality  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  wheat.  The  common 
millet  is  the  panicum  miliaceum. 

BROOM  CORN  (Sorghum  saccliaratum)  is  considered  by 
some  botanists  as  a  variety  of  Sorghum  vulgare ;  by 
others,  as  a  distinct  species.  Its  leaves  are  linear; 
ligules  short  and  hairy;  panicle  with  long,  loose,  expand- 
ing branches.  It  is  an  annual,  and  flowers  in  August, 
growing  from  six  to  nine  feet  high.  Native  of  India. 

The  panicles  are  used  for  brooms,  and  the  seeds  for 
poultry,  swine,  <fec.  It  is  extensively  cultivated  in  many 
parts  of  the  country  along  the  Connecticut  River,  in 
Massachusetts,  the  Mohawk,  in  New  York,  and  at  the 
West.  It  is  said  to  have  been  first  cultivated  in  this 
country  by  Dr.  Franklin,  who  found  a  seed  on  a  stalk 
in -the  possession  of  a  lady,  and  planted  it. 

CHINESE  SUGAR-CANE,  SORGHO,  or  SORGHO  SUCRE 
(Sorghum  nigrum),  is  a  plant  well  known  throughout  the 
United  States.  It  rises  with  a  stem  from  six  to  fifteen 
feet  high,  according  to  the  soil  on  which  it  grows,  erect, 


CHINESE    SUGAR-CANE.  151 

smooth;    leaves    linear,    flexuous,  gracefully  curving 


Fig.  123.    Chinese  Sugar  Cane. 


152  SUGAR-CANE. 

down  at  the  ends,  resembling  Indian  corn  in  its  early 
growth,  and  broom  corn,  to  which  it  is  nearly  allied,  at 
maturity.  Flowers  in  a  panicle  at  the  top,  at  first 
green,  changing  through  the  shades  of  violet  to  pur- 
ple, when  more  advanced.  It  is  seen  in  Fig.  126. 

This  plant  has  lately  been  introduced  and  used  for 
forage,  and  experiments  have  been  made  with  it  lor  the 
manufacture  of  molasses  or  sirup  and  sugar. 

It  is  rich  in  saccharine  matter,  and  a  large  amount  of 
nutritive  fodder  can  be  obtained  from  it. 

It  grows  best  on  a  dry  soil,  and  under  a  hot  sun,  and 
is  usually  planted  in  the  same  manner  as  Indian  corn, 
both  as  to  preparation  of  ground  and  time  of  planting; 
generally  in  hills  when  it  is  intended  to  ripen  its  seed, 
and  in  drills  when  it  is  wanted  to  cut  up  green  for  soil- 
ing purposes,  or  to  cure  and  feed  out  in  winter  as  a 
forage  crop. 

Various  opinions  have  been  expressed,  by  practical 
farmers,  as  to  the  comparative  value  of  this  new  addi- 
tion to  our  cultivated  plants,  and  these  opinions  have 
been  influenced  much  by  the  locality  in  which  it  was 
grown. 

Its  culture,  which  was  extensive  in  New  England 
during  the  first  year  or  two  after  its  introduction,  has 
been,  to  a  great  extent,  abandoned  there,  while  further 
experiments,  in  other  sections  of  the  country,  have 
been  attended  with  greater  satisfaction. 

It  has  usually  received  the  specific  name  of  Sorghum 
so£charatum,  Holcus  saccharatus,  <fec.,  names  which  had 
been  previously  applied  to  another  plant.  It  seems 
proper  to  yield  to  the  prior  claim,  and  I  prefer  to  specify 
it  as  the  Sorghum  niyrum. 

The  SUGAR-CANE  (Saccharum  ojjicinarum)  is  a  tropical 
grass  closely  allied  to  Erianthus.  It  has  a  simple,  un- 
divided, jointed,  and  smooth  stem,  often  two  inches  in 


CULTURE    OF    SUGAR-CANE.  153 

diameter,  and  from  ten  to  twenty  feet  high;  leaves  long 
and  pointed ;  flowers  small,  on  a  terminal,  loose  panicle; 
glumes  two,  oblong,  pointed,  equal,  concave,  with  the 
base  surrounded  with  woolly  hairs ;  a  perennial,  fibrous 
root. 

The  culture  of  several  new  varieties  of  sugar-cane  is 
said  to  have  been  introduced  into  the  Southern  States, 
towards  the  close  of  the  last  century,  from  the  islands 
of  Bourbon,  Java,  and  Otaheite. 

The  sugar-cane  is  propagated  from  cuttings.  It  was 
undoubtedly  cultivated  at  a  very  early  date  in  China 
and  India,  from  whence  it  was  introduced  into  Europe. 
The  culture  of  cane  and  the  making  of  sugar  has  be- 
come an  exceedingly  important  business  at  the  West 
India  Islands,  in  Louisiana,  and  adjoining  states. 

The  top  joints  of  the  stalks  are  selected  for  cuttings, 
they  being  least  valuable,  and  less  productive  in  saccha- 
rine matter  than  the  lower  parts.  The  plant  tillers  or 
sends  up  several  shoots  from  the  same  root,  like  wheat. 

The  land,  after  being  properly  prepared,  is  marked 
out  in  rows,  about  four  feet  apart,  and  in  these  rows 
holes  are  dug,  from  six  to  ten  inches  deep,  about  two 
or  three  feet  apart.  The  plants  require  frequent  hoeing 
and  cultivation,  but  not  to  be  renewed  from  cuttings 
every  year. 

When  the  canes  are  ripe,  they  are  cut  up,  cut  into 
suitable  lengths,  and  tied  into  bundles  to  be  taken  to 
the  mill.  Sugar-making  requires  experience  and  skill. 

66.  ZEA.  Maize. 

Spikelets  two-flowered ;  flowers  monoecious,  the 
staminate  in  terminal  panicles  ;  glumes  two  ;  pales  awn- 
less,  obtuse ;  the  pistillate  or  fertile  spikelets  two-flow- 
ered, with  the  lower  one  abortive ;  glumes  two,  obtuse  ; 
pales  awnless ;  fruit  compressed. 


154  INDIAN    CORN. 

INDIAN  CORN,  MAIZE  (Zea  mai/s],  is  a  true  grass, 
familiar  to  everybody  in  this  country,  and  by  far  the 
most  important  and  extensively  cultivated  of  any  plant 
known  to  our  agriculture. 

The  practice  of  sowing  Indian  corn  in  drills,  for  the 
purpose  of  cutting  up  green  for  fodder,  was  recom- 
mended some  years  ago  by  a  progressive  agriculturist, 
and,  though  at  first  ridiculed,  it  soon  came  to  be  planted 
in  small  patches  of  a  few  rods  square,  by  practical 
farmers  here  and  there,  till  now  it  is  regarded  as  almost 
an  indispensable  crop,  not  only  to  carry  a  stock  of 
cattle  through  a  severe  summer  drought,  when  our  pas- 
tures arc  short  and  dry,  but  to  cut  and  cure  in  large 
quantities  for  winter  use.  The  weight  and  value  of  an 
acre  of  corn  fodder  is  very  large. 

A  more  extended  notice  of  this  plant  will  be  given 
in  the  next  chapter. 


CHAPTER    II. 

THE    CEREALIA;    OR,    THE    GRASSES  CULTIVATED 
FOR  THEIR  SEEDS. 

WE  have  dwelt  thus  far  chiefly  upon  the  grasses,  both 
cultivated  and  wild,  which  are  used  to  greater  or  less 
extent  as  food  for  stock,  either  in  the  green  and  succu- 
lent stage  of  their  growth,  or  cured  for  winter  forage. 
In  this  chapter  I  propose  to  speak  briefly  of  the  cereals, 
or  the  grasses  which  are  cultivated  mainly  on  account 
of  the  large  size  of  their  farinaceous  or  mealy  seeds. 

The  Cereal ia  might  properly  be  considered  a  genus 
of  the  great  family  of  plants  which  forms  the  subject 
of  this  treatise,  the  Graminece,  especially  when  taken 
from  a  practical  point  of  view.  The  term  itself  was 
derived  from  Ceres,  deified  by  the  ancients  as  the  beau- 
tiful goddess  of  corn,  and  it  includes  a  class  of  plants 
by  far  the  most  important  of  any  in  the  known  world. 

The  cereals  are  all  annuals,  and  they  die  down  after 
having  fulfilled  their  natural  destiny  —  the  production 
and  ripening  of  their  seeds.  In  structure  they  resem- 
ble the  grasses  of  which  we  have  already  spoken  ;  that 
is,  they  all  have  hollow  stems,  divided  or  closed  at  the 
joints,  while  from  these  joints  start  sheaths  which  rise, 
clamping  tl>e  stems,  but  open  or  divided  on  one  side. 
The  ears  or  heads  of  the  cereals  consist  of  many  flow- 
ers, arranged  either  in  spikes,  as  in  wheat,  or  panicles, 
as  in  oats,  rice,  and  millet.  They  have  three  stamens. 

This  class  of  plants  consists  chiefly  of  rice,  wheat, 

(155) 


156 


BICE. — DESCRIPTION  —  ORIGIN. 


barley,  rye,  oats,  millet,  and  Indian  corn,  all  true  grasses, 
which  iu  some  respects  resemble'  each  other,  and  form 
a  group  by  themselves. 

RICE  ( Oryza  sativa)  is  a  long  panicled  grass, 
having,  when  ripe,  some  resemblance  to  oats, 
the  seed  growing  in  a  separate  pedicel  start- 
ing from  the  main  stalk.  Each  kernel  term- 
inates in  an  awn,  and  is  enclosed  in  a  rough 
husk,  or  scale,  of  a  yellowish  color.  The 
stem  or  stalk  of  rice  is  similar  to  that  of 
wheat,  except  that  the  joints  are  more  numer- 
ous. It  is  annual,  and  rises  to  the  height  of 
from  two  to  six  feet,  according  to  tho  variety, 
soil,  and  culture.  A  stalk  of  rice,  with  its 
spiked  panicle,  is  shown  in  Fig.  129. 

Rice-meal  is  composed,  to  a  great  extent, 
of  starch,  with  but  a  comparatively  small  per- 
centage of  gluten,  which  forms  a  large  pro- 
portion of  good  wheat-flour.  The  seed  is 
surrounded  with  a  husk,  which  is  so  closely 
attached  to  it  as  to  be  difficult  of  separation. 
It  is  cleaned  by  passing  through  mill-stones, 
set  far  enough  apart  to  prevent  crushing  the 
grain,  but  sufficiently  near  to  remove  the 
husks  or  chaff  by  friction. 

Rice,  doubtless,  originated  in  Asia,  where 
it  is  known  to  have  been  extensively  used 
for  many  ages,  and  where,  from  the  earliest 
times  of  which  we  have  any  record,  it  has 
formed  the  chief  and  most  important  food  of 
the  inhabitants.  It  is  also  at  the  present  time 
largely  produced  in  Egypt,  and  forms  an  im- 
portant article  of  commerce,  and  a  produc- 
tive source  of  wealth.  The  facilities  for  irri- 
Fig.i29.  gation  afforded  by  the  River  Nile  make  it 


CULTURE. VARIETIES.  157 

comparatively  easy  of  cultivation.  The  grain  is  there 
separated  from  the  husk  by  means  of  pestles  and 
mortars. 

The  introduction  of  rice  as  a  cultivated  plant  in  the 
United  States  is  of  modern  date.  It  was  brought  to 
South  Carolina  from  the  island  of  Madagascar  towards 
the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and,  though  for 
many  years  no  means  of  cleaning  it  effectually  were 
known,  yet  its  cultivation  extended,  till  finally  the  meth- 
ods of  cleaning  were  so  far  perfected  as  to  justify  the 
reputation  which  the  growers  acquired,  of  producing 
the  best  rice  in  the  world. 

The  swamps  and  the  climate  of  South  Carolina  are  so 
admirably  adapted  to  this  plant  that  its  culture  is  car- 
ried on  at  comparatively  small  expense  of  labor,  while 
the  grain  itself  arrives  at  great  perfection,  and  is  ac- 
knowledged to  be  of  very  fine  quality,  being  generally 
larger  than  in  the  countries  where  it  was  originally 
grown.  It  has  now  become  an  exceedingly  important 
article  of  export. 

Rice  requires  a  great  supply  of  moisture;  and,  unless 
rains  are  frequent,  or  the  means  of  irrigation  are  at 
hand,  it  will  prove  unproductive. 

There  are  several  varieties.  They  originated,  proba- 
bly, in  differences  of  soil,  climate,  and  culture. 

The  common  rice  requires  for  its  successful  cultiva- 
tion a  wet  marsh,  and  on  any  other  situation  it  fails  to 
grow.  It  may  be  considered  as  almost  an  aquatic  plant. 
Another  variety,  known  as  early  rice,  requires  a  similar 
soil,  but  is  smaller,  and  comes  to  maturity  earlier,  and 
will  generally  ripen  in  about  four  months ;  while  com- 
mon rice  requires  six  months. 

Mountain  rice  will  succeed  with  less  moisture.     I  am 
not  aware  that  this  variety  has  been  cultivated,  to  any 
extent,  in  this  country. 
14 


158  EICE    CULTURE.  —  WHEAT. 

Clammy  rice  will  grow  both  ori'«wamps  and  uplands. 

Rice  is  generally  sown  in  drills,  into  which  it  is 
dropped  by  hand ;  after  which  the  water  is  let  on  for 
several  days,  to  the  depth  of  some  inches,  when  it  is 
removed  till  the  rice  has  sprouted  and  grown  to  the 
height  of  from  two  to  four  in.ches.  The  water  is  then 
again  let  on,  and  suffered  to  remain  for  some  days. 
This  destroys  the  grass  and  weeds,  if  any.  After  this 
it  is  occasionally  hoed  and  cultivated,  to  keep  it  free 
from  weeds. 

The  harvest  commences  generally  in  August,  and 
continues  through  September ;  and  it  is  generally  cut 
with  sickles,  and  gathered  up  into  bundles. 

Rice  is  very  extensively  cultivated  in  China  and  in 
India,  and  along  the  River  Po,  in  Lombardy.  It  is  prob- 
ably used  as  human  food  by  a  larger  number  than  any 
other  cereal  grain. 

WHEAT. 

WHEAT  (Triticum  vulgare)  is  an  annual  herbaceous 
plant,  of  many  varieties,  all  arising,  probably,  from  the 
same  parent,  but  modified  by  varieties  of  climate,  soil, 
and  culture. 

Wheat  possesses,  of  course,  the  same  general  charac- 
teristics as  the  rest  of  the  graminese.  The  seed  is  ob- 
long, or  a  compressed  oval,  surrounded  by  scales  or 
chaff,  which  are  easily  removed.  That  side  of  the  ker- 
nel or  fruit  which  was  next  to  the  rachis  in  growing  is 
marked  by  a  deep  groove  separating  the  mealy  parts  in 
the  middle.  On  the  other  side  a  small  oval  is  seen.  This 
is  the  seat  of  the  embryo,  or  place  where  the  germ  of 
the  new  plant  is  to  take  its  start.  This  is  also  the  point 
of  attachment  of  the  pedicel  on  which  the  kernel  grew, 
and  through  which  it  derived  all  its  growth  and  nour- 
ishment. On  arriving  at  maturity  a  detachment  takes 


MODE    OP    GKOWTH. 


159 


place  at  this  point,  and  it  closes  up  so  as  to  leave  the 
seed  free  in  its  pales  or  husks,  from  which  it  is  easily 
separated. 

The  stalk  or  stem  and  leaves  of  the  wheat  plant,  as 
indeed  of  all  the  cerealia  or  grain  plants,  differ  from 
the  other  grasses  in  containing.a  much  greater  amount 
of  woody  fibre,  often  amounting,  when  ripe,  to  three- 
ton  rths  of  the  whole  weight.  It  is  largely  composed 
of  silex,  a  hard,  flinty  substance,  which  gives  the  stem 
its  firmness  and  solidity,  and  especially  its  hard  and 
glossy  outside  coating. 

Were  it  not  for  this  hard  stem, 
it  could  not  support  its  weight  of 
ears  or  grain.  It  would  lodge  in 
every  wind,  and  be  comparatively 
worthless. 

The  cultivated  plants  belonging 
to  the  genus  Triticum  are  annu- 
als, the  others  are  wild  perennial 
grasses. 

The  root  of  wheat  is  peculiarly 
adapted  to  withstand  the  severity 
of  the  winter's  cold.  The  main  or 
seminal  root  is  pushed  out  at  the 
same  time  .with  the  germ,  and  that 
nourishes  the  plant  in  its  early 
growth.  As  many  as  seventy-two 
stalks  have  been  known  to  rise 
from  a  single  root. 

The    grain   is    composed   to    a 
great   extent   of   starch,   with    a 
Fig.  131.  large   percentage   of  gluten   and 

other  nitrogenous  bodies. 
The  two   prominent  and  most  striking  varieties  of 


Fig.  130. 
Hungarian  Wheat. 


160  WINTER    AND    SPRING    WHEAT. 

wheat  are  known  as  winter  Triticum  hybernum,  and 
spring  Triticum  cestivum. 

Winter  wheat  has  generally  a  larger  and  plumper 
ear,-  smooth  and  awnless,  and  a  stronger,  harder,  and 
more  erect  stem.  It  is  sown  in  autumn,  and  soon 
germinates,  remaining  green  through  the  winter,  and 
starting  up  into  a  vigorous  growth  early  the  next 
spring,  arriving  at  maturity  in  the  following  summer. 
Some  of  the  varieties  of  winter  wheat  are  shown  in 
Figs.  130  and  131. 

There  are  many  sub-varieties  of  winter  wheat,  which 
originated,  probably,  from  influences  of  locality,  soil, and 
culture.  The  two  prominent  groups  are  best  known  as 
the  red  and  white  wheats.  The  red  is  usually  the  more 
hardy,  and  is  covered  with  a  thicker  and  rougher  coat- 
ing, which  adapts  it  better  to  high  northern  latitudes, 
and  severe  winters. 

The  amount  of  glutinous  and  silicious  substances 
(bran)  is  said  to  be  greatest  in  the  red.  and  least  in  the 
white,  while  it  is  medium  in  the  amber. 

Spring  wheat  is  less  hardy  than  winter ;  the  stem  is 
more  slender  and  delicate,  the  ear  smaller  and  thinner, 
and  rather  more  drooping,  and  adorned  with  long  awns 
or  beards.  It  produces,  ordinarily,  less  than  the  winter 
wheat,  while  the  quality  of  its  flour  is  less  esteemed  ; 
but  still  it  often  becomes  profitable  for  cultivation,  and 
is  a  valuable  variety. 

Le  Couteur  makes  the  following  classification  of  the 
endless  varieties  and  sub-varieties  into  which  both  the 
summer  and  winter  wheats  have  passed. 

BEARDLESS   OR   WINTER   WHEATS. 

1  White  Wheats,  smooth  chaffed. 

2  "          "       velvet  husked. 

3  Red          "       smooth  chuffed. 


VABIETIES    OP    WHEAT.  161 

4  Red  Wheats,  velvet  husked. 
6  Yellow     "      smooth  chaffed. 

6  "         "      velvet  husked. 

7  Liver       "      smooth  chaffed. 

8  "         "      velvet  husked. 

BEARDED   OR   SPRING   WHEATS. 

1  White  Spring  Wheat. 

2  Red  Spring  Wheat. 

8  Yellow  Spring  Wheat. 
4  Hoary  Spring  Wheat. 

Among  the  varieties  of  winter  wheat  which  have 
been  cultivated  to  any  extent  in  this  country  may  be 
mentioned  the  common  White  Flint,  improved  White 
Flint,  the  White  Provence  Wheat,  the  Wheatland  Red, 
the  Tuscan  Bald,  the  Skinner  Wheat,  the  Golden  Drop, 
the  White  Blue  Straw,  known  in  Ohio  as  the  Blue 
Stem,  the  Aguira  Wheat,  the  Yerplanck,  the  Canada 
Flint,  the  Bearded  Mediterranean,  Old  White  Flint,  the 
Club,  the  Genesee,  the  Egyptian,  the  Old  Red  Chaff, 
the  Quaker  Wheat,  the  Yellow  Bearded,  the  Kentucky 
Red,  the  Bald  Mediterranean,  the  Red  Blue  Stem,  and 
innumerable  others. 

Among  the  spring  varieties  may  be  mentioned  the 
Italian  Spring  Wheat,  Tea  Wheat,  or  Siberian  Wheat, 
Black  Sea  Wheat,  Black  Bearded  and  Red  Bearded 
Wheats,  the  Scotch  Wheat,  Talavera  Wheat,  the  Black 
Tea  Wheat,  the  Canada  Club,  the  Fife,  &c. 

All  varieties  may  be  easily  modified  by  cultivation. 
The  bearded  may  become  beardless,  and  vice  versa ;  the 
red  may  pass  into  the  white  varieties,  and  the  winter  is 
easily  modified  so  as  finally  to  become  a  spring  wheat. 

A  variety  known  as  spelt,  or  spelt  wheat  ( Triticum 
spelta),  is  shown  in  Fig.  132,  while  a  summer  variety  is 
shown  in  Fig.  133,  Egyptian  wheat  in  Fig.  134,  and 
one-seeded  wheat  (Triticum  monococcum),  or  St.  Peter's 
corn,  in  Fig.  135. 
14* 


162 


SUMMER    WHEATS. 


As  already  intimated,  wheat  is  composed  chiefly  of 
starch,  the  percentage  of  which  varies  from  fifty  to 
seventy  per  cent. ;  of  gluten, 
the  percentage  of  which  varies 
from  ten  to  twenty;  and  of 
from  three  to  five  per  cent,  of 
fatty  matters.  The  best  flour 
contains,  therefore,  seventy 
pounds  of  starch,  or  upwards, 
in  every  hundred  pounds,  and 
the  balance  is  made  up  of  glu- 


Tlg.  132. 


fig  130. 


.  134. 


Jig.  1C5. 


CULTURE.  —  BARLEY.  163 

ten,  sugar,  water,  and  oil.  Starch  is  the  most  important 
ingredient  for  the  nourishment  of  the  young  plant  or 
the  germ. 

Wheat  contains  a  greater  amount  of  nourishment, 
also,  for  the  human  system,  than  the  same  quantity  of 
almost  any  other  vegetable  product.  A  bushel  of  wheat, 
or  sixty  pounds,  when  ground  into  flour,  will  make 
about  forty-seven  pounds  of  what  may  be  called  bread- 
flour  ;  about  four  and  a  quarter  pounds  of  fine  Pollard, 
or  mixture  of  bran  and  meal ;  about  four  pounds  of 
coar.se  Pollard,  two  and  three-fourths  pounds  of  bran, 
and  there  will  be  a  loss,  on  an  average,  of  about  two 
pounds,  making  in  all  sixty  pounds. 

There  are  two  methods  of  cultivation  in  general  prac- 
tice in  this  country,  the  old  method  of  sowing  broad- 
cast, and  the  drill  system,  which  is  the  more  economi- 
cal of  the  two,  as  it  effects  a  saving  of  seed,  and  greater 
security  against  what  is  called  heaving  out  by  the  frost, 
while  the  crop  is  usually  greater,  particularly  if  the 
plant  is  cultivated,  duiing  its  growth,  as  it  may  be, 
between  the  drills.  Very  perfect  drilling  machines  are 
now  in  use  in  wheat-growing  sections  of  the  country. 

BARLEY. 

BARLEY  (Hordeum  vulgare)  has  generally  a  more  slen- 
der seed  than  that  of  wheat,  and  a  firmer  and  rougher 
covering  of  husk  or  chaff.  It  has  also  a  longer  awn,  or 
beard.  Its  amount  of  starch  is  about  the  same  as  that 
of  wheat,  some  analyses  showing  it  to  be  greater,  and 
others  less ;  but  its  amount  of  gluten  is  less.  It  con- 
tains, also,  several  per  cent.,  ordinarily  from  six  to 
eight,  of  uncornbined  saccharine  matter. 

The  average  length  of  a  grain  of  barley,  or  the  mean 
of  many  thousand  measurements,  is  .345  of  an  inch,  or 
not  far  from  a  third  of  an  inch,  from  which  was  derived 


164  ORIGIN    OP    BARLEY. 

the  barleycorn  of  the  old  linear  measure.  The  average 
weight  per  bushel  is  between  fifty  and  fifty-one  pounds. 

The  native  country  of  barley  is  as  unknown  as  that 
of  wheat.  There  is  a  tradition  among  the  Egyptians 
that  barley  was  the  first  grain  used  by  mankind,  and 
they  trace  its  introduction,  as  a  cultivated  plant,  to  the 
goddess  Isis.  It  was  cultivated  in  Syria  more  than  three 
thousand  years  ago ;  for  we  read  that  Rutli  gleaned  in 
the  field  till  evening,  and  beat  out  what  she  had,  and  it 
was  about  an  ephah  of  barley,  and  she  gleaned  till  the 
end  of  the  barley  harvest. 

The  grasses  referred  by  botanists  to  the  same  genus  as 
barley  have  a  strong  outward  resemblance  to  it;  but 
none  of  them,  by  any  degree  of  culture,  can  be  improved 
so  as  to  be  of  service  as  food,  so  that  they  give  no  in- 
dication as  to  the  origin  of  the  grain  in  question ;  and 
as  we  know  it  to  have  been  used  in  Syria  from  a  very 
remote  antiquity,  it  is  natural  to  infer  that  it  originated: 
in  that  country.  There  are  four  distinct  species  of 
barley,  and  from  these  have  arisen  a  great  number  of 
varieties. 

The  common  barley,  or  the  Hordeum  vulgare,  Fig. 
136,  is  a  spring  species,  and  this  is  the  kind  most 
commonly  cultivated.  It  is  six-rowed,  the  rows  being 
slightly  irregular,  the  intermediate  ones  being  a  little 
the  most  prominent.  This  is  extensively  cultivated  in 
Germany.  It  has  passed  into  a  six  regular  rowed 
variety,  which  is  a  winter  grain  of  a  somewhat  shorter 
ear,  and  shells  more  easily  when  ripe,  endures  more 
severe  colds,  and  may  be  cultivated  as  a  winter  variety. 
It  is  shown  in  Fig.  137. 

TWO-ROWED  BARLEY  (Hordeum  distichum},  Fig.  138, 
is  sometimes  cultivated  in  this  country.  Its  spike,  or 
ear,  is  long  and  somewhat  compressed,  and  the  grain  is 
of  a  very  good  quality.  It  is  sown  in  spring. 


SIX-BOWED    BARLEY. 


165 


There  is  also  the  true  winter  barley,  the  Hordeum 
hexasticum,  or  square  barley,  and  the  Hordeum  zeocriton, 


Fig.  136.     Common  Barley. 


Fig.  137. 


16G 


GllOWTH    OF    BAKLEY. 


or  sprat  barley.     4  beardless  variety,  the 
|    Hordeum  trifurcatum,   is   also    known   to 
j  j  some  extent,  but  possesses  no  advantages 
!  I  for  cultivation,  that  I  am  aware  of,  over  the 
'jj  more  common  varieties. 
j!      Barley   is   probably   cultivated    over    a 
[f  wider  range  of  climate  and   latitude    than 
any   other   cereal.      In   warm  climates   it 
passes  through  its  various  phases  of  vege- 
tation with  astonishing  rapidity,  so  as  to 
escape   the   droughts   of  summer;  and  in 
cold  climates  its  growth  is  even  more  rapid, 
coming  to  maturity   before   the  frosts  of 
autumn.      Linnaeus   found   it    growing  in 
Lulean  Lapland,  in  latitude  67°  20*,  where 
the  harvest  began  on  the   28th  July,  the 
seed  having  been  sown  only  six  weeks. 

In  the  warmer  climate  of  Spain,  two 
crops  may  be  taken  from  the  same  ground, 
by  sowing  in  autumn  and  the  following 
summer.  In  this  respect,  therefore,  barley 
has  the  advantage  of  being  more  important 
to  mankind  than  even  wheat. 

Barley  succeeds  best  in  soils  of  medium 
consistency,  but  accommodates  itself  to 
almost  every  variety  of  soil,  except  very 
moist  ones.  It  endures  a  drought  better 
than  excessive  moisture,  but  it  requires  as 
deep  and  good  tillage  as  wheat,  and  may 
take  the  same  place  in  the  rotation  as 
winter  wheat  or  rye.  It  takes  from  the 
soil  a  larger  percentage  of  mineral  sub- 
stances, as  potash,  lime,  magnesia,  phos- 

Fip.  138.    Two-  .      '       .j  , 

rowed  Barley,    phone  acid,  &c.,  than  wheat  or  rye,  and 
these  substances  should,  in  some  form,  be  restored  to 


USES    OF    BARLEY.  167 

the  soil  that  is  repeatedly  cropped  with  barley.  Liquid 
manures  are  extensively  used  for  it  in  Flanders,  and 
they  promote  its  rapidity  of  vegetation  ;  but  too  stimu- 
lating animal  manures  cause  it  to  run  too  much  to 

stalk. 

"  When  the  oak  puts  on  his  gosling  gray, 
'Tis  time  to  sow  barley  night  and  day," 

is  an  old  maxim,  handed  down  to  the  Norfolk  farmers, 
from  which  it  appears  that  experience  had  shown  the 
first  budding  of  the  oak,  previous  to  the  expansion  of 
its  leaves,  as  the  best  time  to  sow  this  grain.  The  most 
extensive  use  of  barley  at  the  present  time  is  for  brew- 
ing and  distilling,  a  use  of  it  which  dates  back  to  the 
remotest  antiquity,  and  which  is  said  to  be  due  to  the 
monks. 

The  best  and  heaviest  grain  is  desirable.  The  com- 
position of  barley  and  the  malt  made  from  it  are  essen- 
tially different,  and  may  be  stated  as  follows  : 

Barley.  Malt. 

Gluten,    ....    3 1 

Sugar,     ....    4 16 

Gum, 5 14 

Starch,    ....  88 ._69 

loo  100 

The  quantity  of  barley  annually  consumed  for  brew- 
ing in  Great  Britain  exceeds  thirty  millions  of  bushels, 
and  from  this  more  than  eight  millions  of  barrels  of 
beer  are  yearly  brewed. 

Barley  is  extensively  used  in  eastern  countries  as 
food  for  horses,  but  has  never  gained  so  great  favor  in 
cooler  latitudes.  It  is  a  less  heating  feed  than  the  oat. 

Barley  ought  to  be  reaped  before  it  becomes  dead 
ripe.  In  this  state  the  husk  is  thick,  making  it  more 
difficult  grinding.  The  approaching  period  of  ripeness 
is  indicated  by  the  yellowness  of  the  straw  and  the 
drooping  of  the  heads. 


168  RYE.  —  CHARACTERISTICS. 

Barley  contains,  on  an  average,  about  sixty-five  per 
cent,  of  nutritive  matter,  while  wheat  contains  about 
seventy-eight  per  cent.  According  to  the  elaborate 
experiments  of  Thaer,  the  comparative  value  of  wheat, 
barley,  and  oats,  for  feeding  stock,  may  be  represented 
by  47,  32,  and  24,  taking  the  same  quantity  of  each. 
The  soil  on  which  these  grains  are  cultivated  has,  no 
doubt,  much  to  do  with  their  composition. 

EYE. 

RYE  (Secale  cereale)  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  the 
island  of  Candia.  It  is  a  plant  intermediate  between 
wheat  and  barley. 

The  general  characteristics  have  been  stated  in  the 
preceding  chapter.  It  is  so  nearly  allied  to  the  genus 
Triticum,  that  it  is  not  always  easily  distinguished  from 
it.  There  are  four  prominent  species,  known  to  bota- 
nists as  Secale  villosum,  or  tufted  rye  ;  Secale  orientale, 
or  dwarf  oriental  rye ;  Secale  creticum,  or  Cretan  rye, 
and  Secale  cereale;  the  last  being  the  only  one  cultivated 
in  this  country  for  its  seeds. 

It  is  characterized  by  long-bearded  spikes,  or  ears,  and 
a  tall  and  slender  stem.  The  glumes  of  the  calyx  are 
toothed  on  the  edges  ;  the  root  is  fibrous  and  annual ; 
the  stem  jointed,  somewhat  branched  at  the  bottom,  and 
smooth.  The  spike  is  terminal,  solitary,  erect,  and 
often  three  or  four  inches  long;  the  awns  straight, 
rough,  erect,  and  four  or  five  times  the  length  of  the 
glumes.  The  plant  is  shown  in  Fig.  139. 

Of  this  there  are  two  prominent  varieties,  known  to 
farmers  as  winter  and  spring  rye,  and  due  to  culture 
mainly. 

The  variety  most  commonly  cultivated,  and  which  is 
represented  in  the  figure,  is  known  as  winter  rye ;  and 
this  is  to  be  preferred,  whether  it  is  sown  for  the  grain 


CULTURE    OF     RYE. 


169 


or  the  straw.     Its  characters  as  a  variety  are  so  little 

fixed  that  it  may  be  sown  at  almost  any  season  of  the 

year,  with  the  hope  of  getting  a  crop,  in 

the  proper  season  for  it,  either  of  grain 

or  green  fodder.     It  is  far  less  sensitive 

to  the  cold  of  winter  than  wheat,  while 

its  vegetation  is  more  rapid,  so  that  in 

high   northern    latitudes    it    is    often  a 

more  important  crop. 

The  cultivation  of  rye  does  not  essen- 
tially differ  from  the  other  grains.  It  is 
usually  sown  broadcast  on  a  well-culti- 
vated soil,  but  will  succeed  on  lighter 
soils  than  wheat,  and  does  not  require 
so  much  moisture  as  either  wheat  or 
barley.  Wheat,  in  particular,  must  have 
a  considerable  mixture  of  clay,  or  what 
would  be  called  a  clay  loam,  or  a  clay 
subsoil,  to  arrive  at  its  full  perfection  as 
a  remunerative  crop.  Barley  needs  con- 
siderable moisture  in  the  soil,  or  in  fre- 
quent rains.  But  rye  requires  less 
moisture  than  either,  and  will  do  very 
well  on  light,  sandy  loams,  and  in  a  com- 
paratively dry  season. 

The  grain  or  kernel  of  rye  is  smaller 
in  size  than  that  of  wheat.  It  tillers 
much  less  in  growing,  and  its  straw,  or 
stem,  when  ripe,  is  very  rich  in  silica  ; 
more  so  than  that  of  wheat,  while  it  con- 
tains  a  larger  percentage  of  potash  and  phosphoric 
acid  than  the  latter.  Manures  containing  a  large 
amount  of  phosphates  and  silicates  of  potash  would 
seem,  therefore,  to  be  highly  important  for  rye,  as, 
indeed,  they  are  for  all  the  cereals. 
15 


rig- 


Rye. 


170  CULTURE.  —  QUALITIES. 

Rye  straw,  though  of  little  value  for  fodder,  is  in 
great  demand  for  litter,  and  for  various  mechanical  pur- 
poses, and  commands  a  high  price,  varying  in  the  Bos- 
ton market  from  ten  to  fifteen  dollars  a  ton.  But  it  is 
as  a  fodder-plant,  and  particularly  for  soiling  in  early 
spring,  that  it  is  now  extensively  used  and  highly  prized. 
For  this  purpose  it  is  sown  in  the  autumn,  the  earlier 
the  better,  after  other  crops  come  from  the  ground,  and 
in  early  spring  it  starts  up  luxuriantly,  and  is  fit  to  be 
fed  off  by  sheep  and  lambs,  or  to  cut  at  the  height  of 
six  inches.  At  this  stage  of  its  growth,  and  before  it 
begins  to  spindle,  it  is  succulent  and  nutritious  ;  but,  as 
soon  as  this  period  of  its  growth  is  reached,  it  loses  its 
succulent  qualities,  and  is  no  longer  relished  by  stock. 

Rye  has  sometimes  been  parched  and  ground  as  a 
substitute  for  coffee ;  but  it  wants  the  grateful  aroma 
and  the  stimulating  properties  of  the  favorite  Mocha 
bean,  and  it  can  hardly  come  into  general  use. 

Rye  sown  with  wheat  produces  a  mixed  crop  known 
as  meslin,  which  forms  one  of  the  healthiest  kinds  of 
bread  that  it  is  possible  to  make,  and  practical  millers 
much  prefer  wheat  and  rye  grown  together  to  any  mix- 
ture of  the  two  that  have  been  grown  separately.  The 
comparative  value  of  wheat  and  rye  is  about  as  71  to 
64,  according  to  the  most  accurate  experiments  and 
analyses. 

But  rye  may  be  cultivated  longer  on  the  same  soil 
than  almost  any  other  crop  of  the  farm.  This  is  a  fact 
which  has  often  been  noticed  by  practical  farmers. 

Rye  contains  a  large  per  cent,  of  gluten,  larger  than 
any  of  the  cereals  except  wheat,  while  about  five  per 
cent,  of  it  consists  of  ready-formed  saccharine  matter, 
which  makes  it  easily  converted  into  malt,  and  so  into 
beer  and  other  spirits,  particularly  that  known  as  "  Hol- 
lands," which  is  distilled  from  rye,  flavored  with  juni- 


ERGOT.  —  OATS.  171 

per,  the  Dutch  for  which  is  Genever,  from  which  comes 
Geneva,  contracted  in  Gin. 

Rye  is  subject  to  a  fatal  disease,  known  as  ergot; 
and  when  attacked  with  it  is  often  called  spurred  rye. 
It  is  most  destructive  in  wet  seasons,  and  is  commonly 
ascribed  to  a  fungous  growth,  the  poisonous  effects  of 
which,  when  taken  into  the  system  of  either  men  or 
animals,  were  observed  as  early  as  1596.  It  is,  fortu- 
nately, not  very  prevalent  in  this  country,  but  some- 
times develops  itself  in  rye,  as  well  as  in  some  of  the 
other  grasses,  as  June  grass  and  reed  canary  grass,  and 
in  some  other  species. 

OATS. 

The  Oat  (Avena  sativa)  derives  its  English  name  from 
a  Saxon  word  signifying  to  eat ;  while  its  generic  name, 
avena,  comes  from  a  Latin  word,  signifying  to  desire, 
from  the  fact  that  cattle  are  fond  of  it. 

This  plant  differs  considerably,  in  appearance,  from 
either  wheat,  rye,  or  barley.  It  grows  in  panicles, 
the  calyx  being  two-valved  or  two-seeded ;  the  seeds 
smooth,  and  one-awned ;  the  root  annual ;  the  stem 
growing  from  two  to  three  feet  high.  The  two  glumes, 
or  the  chaff  of  the  calyx,  are  nerved,  pointed  at  the 
end,  longer  than  the  flower,  and  unequal.  The  two 
flowers  and  seeds  in  each  calyx  are  alternate,  conical  in 
shape  ;  the  smaller  awnless,  the  larger  furnished  with  a 
strong,  bent  awn,  of  two  colors.  The  branches  of  the 
panicle  are  erect  when  green,  but  droop  as  the  seed 
ripens,  from  its  weight. 

The  only  species  cultivated  for  its  seeds,  the  avena 
sativa,  has  passed  into  many  varieties,  such  as  the  Po- 
tato Oat,  the  Siberian,  the  Tartarian,  the  Poland,  the 
White,  the  Black,  the  Horse-mane  Oat,  <fcc.  The  first  is 
undoubtedly  one  of  the  very  best  of  these  varieties, 


172 


VAEIETIES.  —  CULTURE. 


being  the  most  productive,  and  'making  the  best  quality 
of  meal,  though  it  requires  a  somewhat  richer  soil  than 
^^^S^^  other  varieties.  It  was  found 
growing  accidentally  in  a  heap 
of  manure  with  some  potato- 
plants,  and  hence  its  odd  name. 
Its  grain  is  large  and  plump.  The 
common  oat  is  seen  in  Fig.  140. 
For  poor  lands,  the  Tartarian 
or  the  Siberian  is  said  to  be  pre- 
ferable. The  Poland  has  a  thick 
husk  and  a  coarse  straw.  The 
white  varieties  are  known  by 
many  local  names,  though  there 
are  but  slight  differences  be- 
tween them.  Oats  require  good 
loamy  or  stiff  soil  to  produce 
the  largest  crops,  and  do  best  in 
a  moist  climate  or  wet  season. 
They  are  generally  sown  broad- 
cast, and  harrowed  or  rolled  in. 
Many  farmers  are  accustomed  to 
allow  them  to  stand  too  long  and 
get  over-ripened.  In  this  case 
they  shell  too  easily,  thus  caus- 
ing considerable  loss,  while  the 
straw  becomes  comparatively 
worthless  for  feeding  purposes. 
As  soon  as  the  stem  turns  yellow 
below  the  head  or  panicle,  the 
crop  should  be  cut,  without  delay. 
It  has  been  often  remarked  by 
farmers  that  other  crops  in  the 
rotation  follow  oats  better  than 
Fig.  m  oat,  any  other  grain. 


NUTRITIVE    QUALITIES — SEED.  173 

The  nutritive  qualities  of  oats  are  less  than  those  of 
any  other  grain,  taking  weight  for  weight,  very  rarely 
exceeding,  even  in  the  first  quality,  75  per  cent. ;  while 
those  of  wheat,  for  instance,  often  exceed  95  per  cent. 
They  are  used  mainly  as  food  for  horses  in  this  coun- 
try, the  use  for  any  other  purpose  being  comparatively 
limited.  In  France  and  Germany  the  practice  of  baking 
oats  and  rye  together  in  loaves  as  food  for  horses  is 
said  to  be  gaining  ground. 

The  quantity  of  oats  required  to  seed  an  acre  prop- 
erly is  from  three  to  four  bushels.  Many  farmers  over- 
seed,  and  use  from  four  to  six  bushels,  but  without 
reaping  in  proportion  to  what  they  had  sown. 

For  the  purpose  of  ascertaining,  so  far  as  one  experi- 
ment could  throw  light  upon  it,  the  requisite  quantity 
to  seed  an  acre  fully  and  economically,  experiments 
were  instituted  at  the  State  Farm,  in  Massachusetts,  in 
the  spring  of  1858,  and  with  the  following  results: 

The  oats  were  sown  broadcast,  on  the  27th  and  28th 
days  of  April,  and  harrowed  in : 

Lot  No.  1  at  the  rate  of  five  bushels  to  the  acre. 
"        2    "          «      four      " 

3  "          "      three     " 

4  «          «      two       «« 

The  lots  consisted  of  an.  acre  and  a  half  each,  and 
were  manured  with  one  hundred  pounds  of  plaster  of 
Paris  per  acre,  spread  broadcast,  and  harrowed  in,  ex- 
cept a  strip  of  one  acre,  running  across  all  the  lots, 
which  received  no  plaster.  The  oats  were  harvested 
on  the  28th  of  July,  and  thrashed  on  the  2d  and  3d  days 
of  September. 

The  yield  of  lot  number  one  was  forty-two  bushels ; 
of  number  two,  thirty -five  bushels  and  a  half;   of  num- 
ber three,  forty  bushels  j    of  number  four,  twenty-six 
and  a  half  bushels. 
15* 


174  YIELD.  —  INDIAN    CORN. 

The  acre  that  received  no  plaster  yielded  twenty  and 
a  half  bushels.  The  grain  weighed  twenty-eight  pounds 
to  the  bushel,  and  was  pretty  uniform  on  all  the  lots, 
that  on  number  one  being  the  lightest,  both  in  grain 
and  straw. 

The  crop  was  small,  the  land  being  unfavorable  for 
oats;  but  it  will  be  perceived  that  the  lot  seeded 
with  three  bushels  to  the  acre  produced  forty  bushels, 
while  that  seeded  with  five  bushels  produced  only  forty- 
two  bushels. 

The  experiment,  though  exceedingly  unsatisfactory 
in  other  respects,  seems  to  indicate  that  the  use  of 
five  or  six  bushels  is  more  than  is  needed,  and  that  three 
or  four  are  sufficient,  especially  on  land  that  is  well 
cultivated  and  prepared. 

A  good  yield  of  oats  is  from  sixty  to  seventy-five 
bushels  per  acre,  and  this  is  often  obtained  without  any 
extraordinary  culture. 

INDIAN  CORN. 

INDIAN  CORN  (Zea  mays)  was  found  under  cultivation 
by  the  Indians,  on  the  discovery  of  the  New  World, 
and  was,  unquestionably,  of  American  origin.  Its  gen- 
eric name  was  derived  from  a  Greek  word,  signifying 
to  live,  and  was  applied  to  this  plant  on  account  of  the 
farinaceous  or  mealy  nature  of  the  seeds. 

Indian  corn,  or  maize,  grows  with  a  strong,  jointed 
stalk,  rising  to  the  height  of  from  five  to  fifteen  feet, 
with  large,  alternate  leaves  starting  from  each  joint,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  141.  The  male  or  sterile  flowers,  Fig. 
142,  are  arranged  in  a  loose,  spreading  panicle  at  the 
apex,  called  the  tassel,  and  the  female  or  fertile  flowers, 
Fig.  143,  on  the  side. 

Each  plant  bears  from  one  to  four  or  five  ears,  Fig. 
144.  As  many  as  six  or  eight  have  sometimes  been 


INDIAN    CORN.  175 

found  on  some  of  the  varieties.     The  ears  are  cylin- 


Fig.  145. 


Fig.  142.  'f  Fig.  143. 

Fig.  141.  Indian  Corn. 


176  DESCRIPTION  —  USES. 

drical,  and  enclosed  in  a  covering  of  leaves,  in  the  form 
of  sheaths,  called  the  husks.  The  ears  consist  of  the 
fruit  or  grain,  arranged  in  rows  around  a  pithy  cylinder, 
called  the  cob.  The  number  of  rows  varies  from  eight 
to  thirty-six,  but  does  not  usually  exceed  fourteen,  or 
sixteen,  while  the  number  of  grains  in  a  row  is  from 
thirty  to  forty.  These  seeds  are  rounded  on  the  sur- 
face, and  compressed  on  the  sides,  and  from  the  germ  or 
eye  of  each  a  silky  or  thread-like  style  or  filament  of  a 
bright-green  color  extends  along  the  inner  side  of  the 
husks,  and  hangs  down,  forming  together  a  thick  cluster, 
called  the  silks.  These  receive  the  pollen  or  farina  as 
it  falls  from  the  staminate  flowers  of  the  tassel.  The 
seed  could  not  attain  perfection  unless  it  received  this 
pollen  by  means  of  its  silk,  a  fact  which  can  be  easily 
proved  by  cutting  off  the  tassels  of  all  the  stalks  grow- 
ing  together,  before  their  flowers  develop.  Indian  corn 
is  an  annual,  and,  owing  to  the  mealy  quality  of  its 
seeds,  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  all  the  cultivated 
plants. 

There  is  but  one  species  referred  by  botanists  to  this 
genus,  zea ;  but  of  this,  there  are  innumerable  varieties, 
due  to  climate,  soil,  and  culture.  These  varieties  are 
distinguished  by  the  size  and  color  of  the  grains,  the 
number  of  rows  on  the  ear,  the  length  of  time  required 
to  come  to  maturity,  and  other  characteristics,  which 
can  hardly  be  said  to  be  fixed  and  permanent,  as  they 
are  easily  modified  by  culture. 

Indian  corn  is  extensively  used  as  human  food,  and 
for  feeding  and  fattening  domestic  animals,  and  holds  the 
highest  rank  among  the  cereals,  whether  its  nutritive 
qualities,  or  the  produce  and  return  for  the  seed  sown, 
or  its  range  of  climate,  be  regarded. 

Cotton  is  sometimes  said  to  be  king;  but  if,  in  Amer- 
ican agriculture,  the  genius  of  which  is  truly  republican, 


COMPOSITION  —  VARIETIES.  177 

•where  all  the  great  staples  form  so  important  a  part  in 
promoting  the  national  prosperity,  one  can  be  said  to 
hold  preeminence  over  the  rest,  the  palm  must  be  yielded 
to  the  golden  corn,  rearing  its  imperial  form  and  tasselled 
banner  high  over  all  its  compeers,  aud  founding  its 
claim  to  royalty,  as  the  prince  of  cereals,  by  the  universal- 
ity of  its  uses,  and  its  intrinsic  importance  to  mankind. 

Its  flexibility  of  organization  is  truly  wonderful ; 
for  while  it  grows  best  on  moist,  rich  soils,  and  with 
great  heats,  there  are  varieties  of  it  which  can  be  raised 
at  the  height  of  more  than  eight  thousand  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  The  warmest  regions  of  the  torrid 
zone  produce  it  in  abundance,  while  the  short  summers 
of  Canada  have  varieties  adapted  to  them,  and  arrive  at 
maturity  with  almost  the  same  certainty  as  those  under 
a  hotter  sun,  and  a  longer  season. 

According  to  some  analyses,  Indian  corn  furnishes  in 
its  composition  88.43  per  cent,  of  fat-forming  principles, 
gum,  <fec.;  1.26  per  cent,  of  flesh-forming  principles,  9 
per  cent,  of  water,  and  1.31  per  cent,  of  salts.  Its 
chemical  composition  shows  it  to  be  among  the  most 
fattening  of  the  cereals,  and  this  is  also  the  result  of 
experience.  For  our  domestic  animals,  therefore,  and 
as  a  means  of  raising  and  fattening  them,  Indian  corn 
may  justly  be  regarded  as  superior  even  to  wheat. 

No  part  of  the  plant  is  necessarily  lost,  or  thrown 
aside  as  worthless.  Even  the  cob  is  ground,  and,  for 
some  purposes  of  feeding  to  stock,  it  is  very  valuable ; 
while,  if  it  were  necessary,  the  plant  would  supply  us 
with  a  large  amount,  and  a  very  good  quality,  of  sugar. 

As  already  intimated,  the  varieties  of  Indian  corn  are 
innumerable.  Among  the  favorites  for  high  latitudes 
in  this  country,  as  in  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  &c.,  may 
be  mentioned  the  Early  Canada,  the  old  Eight-rowed 
Yellow,  and  with  some  the  King  Philip,  or  Brown  corn, 


178  ROCKY    MOUNTAIN    CORN. 

though  the  latter  has  not  met  the  expectations  raised 
for  it  by  the  United  States  Patent  Office.  A  variety 
known  as  the  Smutty  White  is  also  largely  cultivated  in 
some  sections  of  Massachusetts,  and  its  yield  is  greater 
than  most  others  adapted  to  northern  latitudes.  The 
Turkish  White  Flint,  the  Early  Dutton,  Peabody's  Pro- 
lific, the  Golden  Sioux,  the  Kentucky  Field,  the  Wyan- 
dotte,  the  White  Gourd-seed,  the  Tuscarora,  and  many 
others,  might  be  named. 

In  addition  to  these  prominent  varieties,  which  are, 
in  some  sections,  cultivated  as  field  crops,  might  be 
mentioned  several  well-marked  varieties  of  Sweet  corn, 
such  as  StowelFs  Evergreen,  the  Asylum,  the  Old  Col- 
ony sweet  corn,  and  Darling's  Early,  to  say  nothing  of 
several  other  favorite  early  varieties. 

There  is  a  variety  known  as  the  Rocky  Mountain 
corn,  the  kernels  of  which  are  each  covered  with 
glumes  or  husks,  which  they  lose,  on  cultivation,  in  the 
course  of  three  or  four  years.  In  addition  to  these, 
many  small-eared  varieties  used  for  parching,  and  known 
as  Pop  corn,  are  cultivated  to  a  limited  extent  in  all  parts 
of  the  country,  and  among  them  Rice  corn  and  Calico 
corn. 

The  culture  of  Indian  corn  is  simple,  and  easily  un- 
derstood. It  requires  a  deep,  rich,  and  mellow  soil, 
thoroughly  tilled.  After  ploughing,  the  land  is  care- 
fully marked  off  in  rows  from  three  to  four  feet  apart 
each  way,  according  as  the  variety  is  large  or  small, 
when  four  or  five  kernels  are  dropped  in  a  hill,  either 
by  hand  or  machine,  and  covered  to  the  depth  of  from 
one  to  two  inches.  After  the  corn  is  up,  it  is  cultivated 
with  the  horse  hoe  or  plough,  to  keep  it  free  from  weeds. 
It  is  sometimes  hilled  at  the  last  hoeing ;  at  others  the 
ground  is  left  level,  which  is  thought  to  be  the  best. 

When  Indian  corn  is  planted  as  a  fodder  crop,  or  to 


SELECTION    OP    SEED.  179 

be  cut  and  fed  out  green,  it  is  sown  in  drills  instead  of 
hills.  For  this  use  it  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  and 
important  plants  we  have. 

Most  of  the  operations  in  the  culture  and  harvesting 
of  Indian  corn  may  be  performed  by  machinery.  Husk- 
ing, one  of  the  slowest  and  most  irksome  processes  con- 
nected with  it,  may  now  be  well  and  quickly  done,  at  a 
great  saving  of  time  and  labor  over  the  old  methods. 

In  selecting  corn  for  seed,  the  tips  of  the  ears  are 
thought  to  be  best,  and  that  part  near  the  butt  end  of 
the  ear  next  in  value.  The  common  practice  in  New 
England,  for  many  years,  has  been  to  use  only  the  seeds 
which  grow  on  the  middle  of  the  ear. 

The  experiment  of  planting  seed  taken  from  different 
parts  of  the  ear  has  been  repeatedly  tried,  and  the 
result  has  almost  uniformly  been  better  from  that  taken 
near  the  tips,  however  contrary  it  may  be  to  the  theo- 
ries hitherto  received,  in  regard  to  the  full  and  com- 
plete development  and  perfection  of  seed.  One  farmer, 
within  my  knowledge,  followed  up  his  experiment  for 


Kg.  146. 

ten  years,  planting  only  the  corn  from  the  small  end  of 
the  ears,  choosing  such  as  were  well  filled  out,  then 
selecting  only  that  from  the  middle  of  the  ears,  and 
then  only  that  from  the  large  ends.  After  ten  years, 
he  found  that  in  seven  years  of  the  ten  the  crop  from 
the  small  ends  was  the  largest  and  best. 


180  STATE    FARM    EXPERIMENT. 

A  similar  experiment  wasvtried  at  the  State  Farm  of 
Massachusetts,  in  the  summer  of  1858. 

Two  acres  were  planted,  on  a  light  soil,  well  adapted 
to  Indian  corn,  manured  with  seven  and  a  half  cords 
of  barn-yard  manure  to  the  acre,  spread  broadcast  and 
cultivated  in,  and  ten  bushels  of  leached  ashes  and  one 
hundred  pounds  of  gypsum  to  the  acre,  put  in  the  hill. 
The  corn  was  planted  on  the  third  day  of  June,  in  alter- 
nate rows,  with  seed  taken  from  the  large  ends,  middles, 
and  tips,  of  the  ears.  It  was  hoed  three  times  in  the 
course  of  the  season.  One  acre  was  harvested  and 
husked  with  care,  and  the  result  noted  on  the  19th 
of  October.  The  rows  planted  with  seed  taken  from  the 
large  ends  of  the  ears  produced  seven  hundred  and 
thirty-eight  pounds  of  sound  and  seventy-seven  pounds 
of  soft  corn  on  the  ear,  and  one  thousand  three  hun- 
dred and  sixty  pounds  of  stover.  That  from  seed 
taken  from  the  middle  of  the  ears  produced  six  hundred 
and  sixty-three  pounds  of  sound  corn  in  the  ear,  and 
one  thousand  two  hundred  and  ninety  pounds  of  stover. 
That  from  seed  taken  from  the  small  ends  produced 
seven  hundred  and  forty-seven  pounds  of  sound  and 
fifty-three  pounds  of  soft  corn,  and  one  thousand  three 
hundred  and  twenty  pounds  of  stover.  Comparing  the 
crops  grown  on  this  acre,  and  estimating  the  sound  corn 
at  one,  and  the  soft  corn  at  half  a  cent  per  pound, 
and  the  stover  at  seven  dollars  the  ton,  —  which  is  about 
its  market  value  in  that  vicinity,  —  it  would  appear  that 
the  value  of  the  crop  the  seed  for  which  was  taken 
from  the  large  ends  of  the  ear  was  as  follows : 

788  pounds  of  sound  corn,  ta>  1  cent  per  pound,    $7.38 

77      "  soft  corn,      <©  £    "      "       "  .39 

1360     •"  stover,          <S)  7  dollars  per  ton,       4.76 

$12.53 


COMPARATIVE    RESULTS.  181 

Value  of  the  product  of  the  rows  planted  with  seed 
taken  from  the  middle  of  the  ears : 

663  pounds  sound  corn,  $6.63 

164      "       soft  corn,  .82 

1200      "      stover,  (a)  7  dollars  per  ton,     4.51 

$11.96 

Value  of  the  product  of  the  rows  planted  with  seed 
taken  from  the  tips  of  the  ears : 

747  pounds  sound  corn,     $7.47 

53      "       soft  corn,  .27 

1320      "       stover,  4.62 

$12.36 

In  this  case,  the  seed  from  the  butts  produced  the 
most,  that  from  the  tips  the  next,  and  that  from  the 
middles  the  least,  in  money  value  ;  but  the  tips  produced 
the  most,  the  butts  the  next,  and  the  middles  the  least, 
sound  corn ;  while  the  middles  produced  the  most,  the 
butts  the  next,  and  the  tips  the  least,  soft  corn. 

One  experiment,  as  already  intimated,  does  not  prove 
a  point  in  agriculture,  however  fair  it  may  be,  —  and 
the  above  was  eminently  so,  so  far  as  uniformity  of  soil 
and  manuring  was  concerned, — and  this  point  is  worthy 
of  more  careful  trial  and  investigation  by  practical 
farmers. 

The  chief  objection  to  sowing  Indian  corn  to  be  cut 
up  green  and  dried  for  winter  fodder  is  to  be  found  in 
the  difficulty  with  which  it  is  cured,  on  account  of  the 
lateness  of  the  season  at  which  it  arrives  at  the  most 
productive  stage  of  its  growth,  and  the  extreme  suc- 
culency  of  its  large  and  juicy  leaves.  But  when  prop- 
erly cured  it  affords  a  very  large  amount  of  nutritious 
feed,  which  is  relished  by  all  kinds  of  stock,  and  is 
especially  valuable  for  feeding  to  young  animals;  and, 
notwithstanding  the  objection  often  made  to  it,  it  is 
16 


182  DRIED    CORN    AS    FODDER. 

worthy  of  a  more  extended  cultivation  for  this   pur- 
pose. 

The  amount  of  dried  fodder  which  may  be  obtained 
from  it,  when  properly  cultivated,  is  truly  astonishing. 
Perhaps  the  process  of  kiln-drying  might  be  introduced 
with  advantage.  It  is,  at  least,  worthy  of  a  careful 
trial,  wherever  facilities  for  it  can  be  had  at  a  reason- 
able expense. 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE  ARTIFICIAL  GRASSES;  OR,  PLANTS  CULTI- 
VATED AND  USED  LIKE  GRASSES,  THOUGH  NOT 
BELONGING  TO  THE  GRASS  FAMILY. 

WE  have  given  our  whole  attention,  in  the  preceding 
pages,  to  what  are  strictly  and  properly  called  the  nat- 
ural or  the  true  grasses.  We  now  come  to  consider,  very 
briefly,  another  class  of  plants,  called  artificial  grasses. 

Curious  as  it  may  appear,  the  artificial  grasses  were 
cultivated  first,  in  point  of  time,  in  England ;  the  red 
clover  having  been  introduced  and  grown  there  about 
the  year  1633;  sainfoin,  1651;  yellow  clover  in  1659, 
and  white  clover  about  the  year  1700 ;  while  not  one 
of  the  natural  grasses  was  cultivated  till  nearly  a  cen- 
tury later,  with  the  exception  of  perennial  rye  grass, 
first  cultivated  in  1677. 

About  the  year  1759  the  custom  of  sowing  the  chaff 
and  seed  dropped  from  the  hay-stack  along  with  the 
artificial  grasses  and  rye  grass  began,  and  soon  after, — 
between  1761  and  1764,  —  the  cultivation  of  Timothy 
and  orchard  grass  was  introduced  from  America.  The 
culture  of  the  bent  grasses,  the  sheep's  fescue,  and  the 
crested  dog's  tail,  began  soon  after.  In  1766  the  Lon- 
don Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  Arts  offered 
premiums  for  the  collection  of  the  seeds  of  some  of  the 
grasses  then  found  growing  wild,  such  as  the  meadow 
foxtail,  the  meadow  fescue,  the  sweet-scented  vernal 

(183) 


184        EARLY  CULTURE  OF  GRASSES. 

grass,  &c. ;  and  in  1769  the  same  society  offered  addi- 
tional rewards  for  further  investigations  and  experi- 
ments on  the  culture  and  comparative  value  of  the 
natural  grasses.  But  little  was  done,  however,  till  the 
experiments  at  Woburn  Abbey,  in  1824. 

In  this  country  the  extensive  and  practical  cultiva- 
tion of  the  natural  grasses  seems  to  have  been  com- 
menced at  an  earlier  date  than  in  England  ;  for  Jared 
Eliot,  writing  about  the  year  1750,  speaks  of  the  cul- 
ture of  Timothy  as  having  been  adopted  some  time 
previously.  Indeed,  the  necessities  of  our  rigorous 
climate  compelled  attention  to  this  branch  of  husbandry 
soon  after  the  establishment  of  the  Plymouth  colony,  in 
the  year  1620. 

The  climate  of  England,  on  the  other  hand,  admitted 
a  greater  degree  of  reliance  on  the  wild  luxuriance  of 
nature,  while  the  culture  of  the  grains  gave  a  suffi- 
ciency of  coarse  straw,  which  formed  the  winter  sus- 
tenance for  stock  till  the  modern  improvements  in 
farming  introduced  a  better  system.  This  mode  of 
management  was  brought  over  to  this  country  by  the 
first  settlers,  and  attempted  for  some  time;  the  few  cat- 
tle they  had  being  kept  on  poor  and  miserable  swale  hay, 
or  often  upon  the  hay  obtained  from  the  salt  marshes. 
The  death  of  their  cattle  from  starvation  and  exposure 
was  of  very  common  occurrence,  and  not  unfrequently 
the  farmer  lost  his  entire  herd.  The  treatment  of  ani- 
mals now  as  they  were  treated  during  the  whole  of  the 
first  century  of  the  colony,  would  be  an  evidence  of 
inhumanity  which  could  scarcely  be  tolerated  in  any 
community.  This  treatment  was  in  part,  at  least,  owing 
to  the  poverty  of  the  settlers,  and  more,  probably,  to 
the  ideas  and  practices  in  which  they  had  been  early 
trained  in  a  different  climate.  Fortunately  for  the  most 
useful  of  our  domestic  animals,  a  more  enlightened  pol- 


BED    CLOVER — DESCRIPTION.  185 

icy  now  governs  the  mass  of  men,  and  this  policy  has 
led  to  greater  care  and  attention  to  the  cultivation  of 
the  grasses. 

The  culture  of  the  natural  grasses  takes  the  prece- 
dence, therefore,  in  this  country,  in  point  of  time,  from 
the  causes  already  indicated  ;  but  the  minds  of  men  are 
so  influenced  by  the  routine  of  ordinary  practice,  that 
the  introduction  of  clover  in  the  early  part  of  the  last 
century  met  with  great  prejudice,  which  is  now  nearly, 
if  not  quite  extinct. 

RED  CLOVER  (Trifolium  pratense),  though  not  in- 
cluded in  the  family  of  grasses,  is  not  only  exten- 
sively cultivated,  but  is  found  to  be  one  of  the  most 
valuable  and  economical  forage  plants.  It  belongs  to 
the  pulse  family,  or  Leguminosce,  which  includes  the 
larger  portion  of  forage  plants  called  artificial  grasses, 
in  distinction  from  the  gramiueae,  the  only  true,  and 
often  called  the  natural  grasses.  The  generic  name, 
trefoil,  or  trifolium,  is  derived  from  the  Latin  tres,  three, 
and  folium,  a  leaf;  and  the  genus  can  generally  be  very 
readily  distinguished  by  the  number  and  arrangement 
of  its  leaves  in  three  leaflets,  and  flowers  in  dense 
oblong  or  globular  heads. 

The  stems  of  red  clover  are  ascending,  somewhat 
hairy ;  leaflets  oval  or  obovate,  often  notched  at  the 
end,  and  marked  on  the  upper  side  with  a  pale  spot ; 
heads  ovate,  and  set  directly  upon  the  stalk,  instead 
of  upon  branches.  This  species  is  regarded  as  by  far 
the  most  important  of  the  whole  genus  for  the  practi- 
cal purposes  of  agriculture.  It  has  passed  into  a  num- 
ber of  varieties,  one  of  which  is  biennial,  another  peren- 
nial ;  the  latter  by  long  cultivation  becoming  biennial, 
while  the  former  —  as  is  true  of  most  biennial,  and 
many  annual  plants  —  assumes,  to  some  extent,  the 
16* 


186 


ITS    EARLY    INTRODUCTION. 


character  of  a  perennial,  and  can  be  made  to  last  three 
or  four  years,  or  even  more,'  by  simply  preventing  it 
from  running  to  seed.  This  plant  is  seen  in  Fig.  147, 
its  leaf  is  shown  in  Fig.  148,  and  its  fruit  magnified  in 
Fig.  149. 


Fig.  147.    Red  Clover.  Fig  148. 

The  introduction  of  clover  into  England,  it  is  often 
said,  produced  an  entire  revolution  in  her  agriculture ; 
and,  indeed,  when  we  consider  how  important  a  part  it 
plays  in  our  own  system  of  farming,  we  can  with  diffi- 
culty imagine  how  our  ancestors  ever  got  on  at  all  in 
farming  without  it.  Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  certain  that 
it  led  to  many  of  the  most  important  improvements  in 
the  rotation  of  crops.  Clover  is  very  properly  regarded 
as  a  fertilizer  of  the  soil.  The  action  of  its  long  and 
powerful  tap-roots  is  not  only  mechanical,  —  loosening 
the  soil,  and  admitting  the  air, — but  also  chemical,  serv- 


COMPOSITION — CULTURE.  187 

ing  to  fix  the  gases  important  to  enrich  the  earth,  and 
when  these  roots  decay  they  add  largely  to  that  black 
mass  of  matter  we  call  the  soil.  It  serves,  also,  by  its 
luxuriant  foliage,  to  destroy  annual  weeds  which  would 
spring  up  on  newly-seeded  land,  especially  after  imper- 
fect cultivation.  But  one  of  the  most  valuable  uses  of 
it,  and  one  too  often  overlooked,  is  to  shade  the  surface 
of  the  soil,  and  thereby  increase  its  fertility. 

Clover  is  emphatically  a  lime  plant,  and  the  soils  best 
adapted  to  it  are  tenacious  or  stiff  loams.  The  careful 
analysis  of  Professor  Way  found  no  less  than  35.39  per 
cent,  of  lime  in  the  inorganic  constituents  of  red  clover, 
and  that  of  Boussingault  32.80  per  cent.,  while  intelli- 
gent practice  has  arrived  so  nearly  at  the  same  conclu- 
sion, that  the  term  "  clover  soils  "  is  now  almost  univer- 
sally used  to  indicate  a  tenacious  loam,  containing  more 
or  less  of  lime  or  clay  in  its  composition. 

Another  great  advantage  in  favor  of  the  cultivation  of 
clover,  consists  in  its  rapid  growth,  But  a  few  months 
elapse  from  the  sowing  of  the  seed  before  it  yields, 
ordinarily,  an  abundant  and  nutritious  crop,  relished  by 
cattle  of  all  kinds. 

Clover-seed  should  always  be  sown  in  the  spring  of 
the  year,  in  the  climate  of  New  England.  It  is  often 
I  sown  upon  the  late  snows  of  March  or  April,  and  soon 
finds  its  way  down  to  the  soil,  where,  aided  by  the 
moisture  of  early  spring,  it  quickly  germinates,  and  rap- 
idly shoots  up  its  leaf-stalks. 

An  accurate  and  valuable  analysis  of  this  plant,  both 
in  its  green  and  dry  state,  will  be  found  in  a  tabular 
form  on  a  subsequent  page  ;  while  a  more  extended 
notice  of  its  culture  and  the  mode  of  curing  it,  with 
the  results  of  practical  experience  as  to  its  value,  will 
also  be  given  in  its  proper  place. 


188  WHITE    CLOVER. 

WHITE  CLOVER,  DUTCH  CLOVER,  HONEYSUCKLE  (Tri- 
folium  repeits),  is  equally  common  with  the  red,  and 
often  forms  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the  sward 
or  turf  of  pastures  and  fields  of  a  tenacious  and  moist 
soil.  Its  stems  are  spreading,  slender,  and  creeping ; 


Fig.  150.     White  Clover.  Fig.  151. 

leaves  inversely  heart-shaped  ;  flower-heads  small,  white  ; 
pods  four-seeded  ;  root  perennial.  Flowers  from  May 
to  September.  This  plant  is  shown  in  Fig.  150.  A 
magnified  flower  is  seen  in  Fig.  151. 

White  clover  is  widety  diffused  over  this  country  and 
all  the  countries  of  Europe.  It  is  indigenous  probably 
both  to  England  and  America.  When  first  cultivated 
from  seed  collected  from  wild  plants,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  last  century,  it  was  recorded  of  a  farmer  that  he 
had  "  sowed  the  wild  white  clover  which  holds  the 
ground  and  decays  not."  Its  chief  value  is  as  a  pas- 
ture grass,  and  it  is  as  valuable  for  that  purpose  as  the 
red  clover  is  for  hay  or  for  soiling,  though  there  are 
some  who  place  a  low  estimate  upon  it. 

It  easily  accommodates  itself  to  a  great  variety  of 
soils,  but  grows  most  luxuriantly  in  moist  grounds  and 
moist  or  wet  seasons.  Indeed,  it  depends  so  much 
upon  a  general  distribution  of  rains  through  the  season, 
that  when  they  are  sufficiently  abundant  it  comes  in 


COW    GRASS.  —  LUCERNE.  189 

profusely  even  where  it  was  not  observed  in  other 
years,  and  hence  such  seasons  pass  under  the  term  of 
"  clover  years."  It  is  not,  apparently,  so  much  relished 
by  stock  as  from  its  sweetness  we  should  be  led  to 
expect ;  but  it  is,  on  the  whole,  to  be  cherished  for  per- 
manent pastures,  and  improved,  as  it  undoubtedly  may 
be,  by  a  proper  selection  and  culture  of  varieties.  For 
an  accurate  analysis  of  this  plant,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  a  subsequent  page. 

Cow  GRASS,  ZIGZAG  CLOVER,  PERENNIAL  CLOVER 
(Trifolium  medium],  grows  on  dry  hills  in  Massachu- 
setts, and  has  been  introduced  for  cultivation  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  country,  as  a  pasture  plant.  Its  stems 
are  zigzag,  smoothish  ;  leaflets  oblong,  entire,  spotless  ; 
heads  mostly  stalked  ;  flower  purple,  and  larger  than  in 
red  clover. 

ALSYKE,  or  SWEDISH  CLOVER  (Trifolium  hybridum), 
has  also  been  introduced  for  cultivation  on  moist,  strong 
soils,  but  with  what  success  I  am  not  informed.  It  is 
said  to  continue  in  the  soil  for  many  years,  from  its  own 
seeds,  if  left  to  mature. 

SUCKLING  RED  CLOVER  ( Trifolium  filiforme)  has  also 
been  introduced  and  recommended  for  cultivation,  but 
has  not  come  into  general  culture. 

LUCERNE,  ALFALFA  (Medicago  sativa),  is  shown  in 
Fig.  152.  Leguminous  plants  of  the  genus  Medicago 
have  been  known  and  cultivated  from  time  immemo- 
rial. This  particular  species,  lucerne,  was  brought  from 
Media  to  Greece,  in  the  time  of  Darius,  about  five  hun- 
dred years  before  Christ,  and  its  cultivation  afterwards 
extended  among  the  Romans,  and  through  them  to  the 
south  of  France,  where  it  has  ever  since  continued  to 
be  a  favorite  forage  plant.  It  does  not  endure  a  climate 
as  severe  as  red  clover,  requiring  greater  heat  and  sun- 


190 


HABIT    OP    GKOWTH. 


light ;  but,  in  a  latitude  equally  suited  to  both  plants,  it 
would,  perhaps,  be  somewhat  difficult  to  say  which 
should  have  the  preference.  In  some  respects  it  is 
decidedly  superior,  as  in  being  perennial,  and  conse- 
quently remaining  long  in  the  soil.  I  have  seen  fine 
specimens  of  it,  where  the  seed  was  sown  in  1824,  still 
maintaining  its  vigorous  hold  of  the  soil,  and  growing 
with  remarkable  luxuriance.  The  crop  of  lucerne  is  as 
abundant  as  red  clover,  and  is  equally  well  relished  by 
cattle,  both  green  and  dry.  Its  yield  of  green  fodder 
continues  later  in  the  season  than  that  of  red  clover. 


Fig.  154. 


Fig.  152.     Lucerne. 


Fig.  153. 


Lucerne  sends  down  its  tap  roots  in  mellow  soils  to 
enormous  depths,  having  been  found  in  sandy  soils  thir- 
teen feet  in  length.  The  leaflets  are  in  threes,  obovate, 


CULTURE    OF    LUCERNE.  191 

oblong,  toothed  ;  the  flowers  pale-blue,  violet,  or  purple, 
shaped  as  in  Fig.  153  ;  the  fruit  in  downy  pods,  having 
two  or  three  twirls,  as  in  Fig.  154. 

Lucerne  is  cultivated  in  Chili,  and  grows  wild  in  the 
utmost  luxuriance  in  the  pampas  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
where  it  is  called  alfalfa,  which  is  simply  the  common 
lucerne,  slightly  modified  by  climate,  and  may  be  re, 
garded  as  a  variety. 

The  cultivation  of  lucerne  is  somewhat  more  difficult 
than  that  of  clover  for  the  first  year,  requiring  a  soil 
thoroughly  mellowed,  and  prepared  by  clean  and  care- 
ful tillage  ;  and  the  want  of  proper  attention  on  this 
point  has  led  to  partial  failures  in  the  attempts  to  raise 
it  in  this  country.  It  suffers  and  languishes  in  compact 
clay  soils,  and  does  not  flourish  in  light  soils  lying  over 
an  impermeable  subsoil,  which  prevents  the  water  from 
running  off.  It  will  never  succeed  well  on  thin  soils. 
But  in  a  permeable  subsoil,  consisting  of  loam,  or  sand, 
or  gravel,  its  roots  can  penetrate  to  great  depths ;  and, 
being  nearly  destitute  of  lateral  shoots,  provided  with 
numerous  fibrous  rootlets,  or  radical  off-shoots,  imbibe 
their  moisture  and  nutriment  in  layers  of  soil  far  below 
the  average  of  other  plants.  In  this  respect  it  differs 
materially  from  clover. 

For  lucerne,  a  suitable  subsoil  is  of  the  utmost  con- 
sequence. For  the  short-lived  red  clover,  a  suitable 
surface  soil  is  more  important ;  a  want  of  care  and  deep 
tillage,  especially  a  neglect  to  break  through  and  loosen 
up  the  hard-pan  wherever  it  exists,  will  inevitably  lead 
to  failure  with  lucerne.  But,  when  the  soil  is  suitable, 
it  will  produce  good  and  very  profitable  crops  for  from 
five  to  ten  or  twelve  years,  and,  of  course,  it  does  not 
belong  in  the  system  of  short  rotations. 

But,  notwithstanding  the  large  quantity  of  succulent 
and  nutritious  forage  it  produces,  its  effect  is  to  ameli- 


192  ENRICHING    THE    SOIL. 

orate  and  improve  the  soil,  rather  than  to  exhaust  it. 
This  apparent  anomaly  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  all 
leguminous,  broad-leaved  plants  derive  a  large  propor- 
tion of  their  nutritive  materials  from  the  atmosphere, 
and  that  a  vast  quantity  of  roots  are  left  to  decay  in 
the  soil  when  it  is  at  last  broken  up,  varying,  of  course, 
with  the  length  of  time  the  plant  continues  in  the  soil, 
while  the  luxuriant  foliage  serves  to  shade  the  soil,  and 
thus  to  increase  its  fertility.  Much  of  this  rich  foliage 
is  scattered  and  left  to  decay,  as  is  the  case  with  all 
similar  plants  at  the  time  of  harvesting,  and  the  growth 
of  the  aftermath  is  also  usually  very  considerable.  The 
fact  that  it  actually  increases  the  fertility  of  the  soil  for 
other  plants  has  often  been  proved,  and  may  be  re- 
garded as  fully  established.  A  soil  which  would  bear 
only  a  medium  crop  of  wheat  at  first,  produced  a  greatly 
increased  quantity  after  being  laid  down  to  lucerne  a 
few  years,  till  its  roots  had  enriched  the  soil. 

Lucerne  should  not  follow  immediately  after  having 
been  grown  a  few  years  on  the  same  soil,  and  then 
broken  up ;  but  after  the  land  on  which  it  has  been 
grown  has  been  cultivated  with  some  other  crop,  or 
laid  down  to  the  natural  grasses  a  length  of  time  equal 
to  that  during  which  it  had  previously  remained  in 
lucerne,  it  can  safely  be  sown  again  with  it. 

The  seed  of  lucerne,  when  fresh  and  good,  is  yellow, 
glossy,  and  heavy.  If  the  seeds  are  white,  it  is  an  indi- 
cation that  they  are  not  ripe.  If  they  are  brown,  we 
may  infer  that  they  have  been  subjected  to  too  strong 
a  heat  to  separate  them  from  their  husks.  In  either  of 
these  cases,  it  is  not  safe  to  purchase  or  to  rely  upon 
them.  The  same  may  be  said  of  clover,  and  it  is  desir- 
able to  try  them  by  a  simple  method,  which  will  be  indi- 
cated hereafter  in  speaking  of  the  selection  of  seed. 
As  the  seeds  of  lucerne  are  somewhat  larger  than 


CUTTING.  —  HARDINESS.  193 

clover-seed,  and  the  plant  tillers  less,  it  is  necessary  to 
sow  a  larger  quantity  per  acre.  It  may  be  sown  in 
the  spring  along  with  grain  crops,  as  clover  often  is, 
and  not  a  very  large  crop  should  be  expected  the  first 
year. 

Lucerne  should  be  cut  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  flower, 
or  even  earlier.  If  cut  much  earlier,  it  is  apt  to  be  too 
watery  and  less  nutritious,  and  cures  with  greater  diffi- 
culty ;  if  later,  it  becomes  coarse  and  hard,  with  woody 
fibre,  and  is  less  relished  by  cattle.  It  may  be  cut  and 
fed  green,  and  is  an  exceedingly  valuable  plant  for 
soiling  cattle,  or  it  may  be  cut  and  cured  and  used  like 
clover  hay ;  but  in  either  case  it  must  be  cut  before 
blossoming. 

It  is  thought  by  many  that  lucerne  will  not  endure 
our  northern  climates ;  but  I  do  not  think  it  satisfacto- 
rily proved,  and  I  have  been  somewhat  minute  in  speak- 
ing of  it,  in  the  hope  of  inducing  more  careful  experi- 
ments on  a  scale  and  under  circumstances  sufficient  to 
determine  its  relative  value  for  us.  I  am  the  more 
anxious  on  this  point  from  the  fact  that  I  am  convinced, 
after  much  study  and  observation  of  our  climate,  that 
we  should  direct  our  labors  in  farming  more  with  refer- 
ence to  the  frequent  droughts  of  summer  to  which  we 
are  liable  every  year,  and  from  which  there  is  no  imme- 
diate and  practicable  escape,  except  in  thorough  drain- 
age and  deep  tillage,  which  most  farmers  are  unwilling 
to  undertake  at  present.  "  When  properly  managed, 
the  number  of  cattle  which  can  be  kept  in  good  condi- 
tion on  an  acre  of  lucerne,  during  the  whole  season, 
exceeds  belief.  It  is  no  sooner  mown  than  it  pushes 
out  fresh  shoots  ;  and,  wonderful  as  the  growth  of 
.clover  sometimes  is,  in  a  field  that  has  been  lately 
mown,  that  of  lucerne  is  far  more  rapid.  Lucerne  will 
last  for  many  years,  shooting  its  roots  —  tough  and 
17 


194  SAINFOIN — DESCRIPTION. 

fibrous  almost  as  those  of  liquorice  —  downwards  for 
nourishment,  till  they  are  altogether  out  of  the  reach 
of  drought.  In  the  dryest  and  most  sultry  weather, 
when  every  blade  of  grass  droops  for  want  of  moisture, 
lucerne  holds  up  its  stem,  fresh  and  green,  as  in  the 
genial  spring." 

I  am  convinced,  also,  that  the  failures  of  attempts  to 
cultivate  lucerne  with  us  may  be  ascribed,  in  very  many 
instances,  to  an  improper  selection  of  soils ;  but  it  is 
nevertheless  true  that  our  climate  is  not  so  well  adapted 
to  it  as  that  of  the  south  of  France ;  and  experiments 
hereafter,  like  those  already  made,  may  show  its  culture 
to  be  wholly  impracticable. 

SAINFOIN  (Hedysarum  onobrychis]  differs  from  lucerne 
in  many  important  particulars.  It  is  a  leguminous  plant, 
with  many  stems  from  two  to  three  feet  long,  straggling, 
tapering,  smooth ;  leaves  in  pairs  of  pointed,  oblong 
leaflets,  slightly  hairy  on  the  under  side ;  flower-stalks 
higher  than  the  leaves,  ending  in  a  spike  of  crimson  or 
variegated  flowers,  succeeded  by  flat,  hard  pods,  toothed 
on  the  edges  and  prickly  on  the  sides  ;  root  perennial 
and  hard  and  woody.  Flowers  in  July.  It  is  shown 
in  Fig.  155.  The  flower  is  shown  in  Fig.  156,  and  the 
fruit  in  Fig.  157. 

Experiments  have  been  made  in  introducing  and  cul- 
tivating it  in  the  northern  latitudes  of  this  country,  but 
without  much  success.  It  requires  a  calcareous  soil. 
In  the  south  of  France,  where  it  flourishes  best,  it  is 
considered  an  indispensable  forage  plant,  improving 
the  quality  and  increasing  the  quantity  of  milk  when 
fed  to  milch  cows,  to  which  it  may  be  given  without 
producing  the  "  hoove,"  to  which  they  are  subjected 
when  allowed  to  feed  freely  on  green  clover  and  lucerne. 
Its  stalks  do  not  become  ligneous  if  allowed  to  stand  till 


SEEDS. —  SOILS. 


195 


blossoming,  as  those  of  lucerne  do.  The  amount  of 
fodder  obtained  from  it  is  less  than  that  from  clover  or 
lucerne,  but  its  quality,  where  it  can  be  successfully 
grown,  is  better.  Its  fruit  or  seeds  are  said  to  be  more 
nutritious  than  oats.  They  are  eagerly  sought  by  fowls, 
and  are  said  to  cause  them  to  lay. 


Fig.  157. 


Fig.  155.    Sainfoin. 


Fig.  156. 


Sainfoin,  when  green  and  young,  will  not  stand  a 
severe  winter,  but  after  the  second  or  third  year  will 
endure  a  considerable  degree  of  cold.  It  will  succeed 
in  very  dry  soils,  sands,  and  gravels,  owing  to  its  long 
descending  tap  root,  which  has  been  found  sixteen  feet 
in  length.  Its  seeds  have  been  generally  distributed 
over  the  country,  but,  so  far  as  I  know,  they  have  been 
followed  by  no  marked  success  in  the  way  of  crops. 


196  CALIFORNIA    CLOVERS. 

Sainfoin  will  endure  in  the  soil,  when  once  fixed  there, 
for  eight  or  ten  years;  but  it  requires  from  three  to 
four  years  to  attain  its  perfect  growth.  In  pasture  cul- 
ture the  grasses  are  apt  to  choke  it  out,  by  their  close 
and  firm  turf. 

It  may  be  proper  to  say,  in  this  connection,  that  many 
species  of  plants  grow,  and  are  very  useful  as  forage 
plants,  on  our  Pacific  coast,  especially  in  California, 
which  have  not  yet  been  fully  described  or  finally  class- 
ified. Such  are,  for  example,  the  California  clovers, 
species  of  the  genus  Medicago,  probably,  and  many 
others. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

THE    GRASS-LIKE    RUSHES,     CARICES,    AND     SEDGES 
COMMONLY    CALLED     GRASSES. 

THERE  is  a  large  class  of  plants  belonging  to  different 
families,  which,  though  of  comparatively  little  value 
when  their  nutritive  qualities  are  considered,  are  nev- 
ertheless used  as  forage  crops  to  a  very  considerable 
extent  in  different  sections  of  the  country,  and  demand 
at  least  a  passing  notice,  particularly  as  they  are  called 
grasses,  though  improperly,  in  popular  language. 

The  first  of  these  are  the  arrow  grasses,  which  form  a 
limited  family,  consisting  of  only  three  species,  known 
as  the  MARSH  ARROW  GRASS  (Triglochin  palustre),  the 
SEA-SIDE  ARROW  GRASS  (Triglochin  maritimum),  flower- 
ing in  July  and  August,  in  salt  marshes,  and  the  TALL 
ARROW  GRASS  (Triglochin  datum).  The  second  of  these, 
having  rush-like  leaves,  sweetish  to  the  taste,  is  relished 
by  cattle,  and  forms  a  pretty  good  fodder  when  well 
cured.  It  is  common  along  the  coast  from  New  Eng- 
land south. 

Many  of  the  rushes  or  grass-like  plants  so  common 
along  the  borders  of  our  ponds,  and  called  grasses  in 
popular  language,  are  readily  eaten  in  the  spring  while 
green  and  full  of  juice,  more  on  account  of  their  suc- 
cnlency  than  of  any  nutritive  qualities  which  they  pos- 
sess, which,  with  few  exceptions,  are  very  slight.  They 
are  arranged  in  the  following  table : 

17*  (197) 


198 


BUSHES.  —  BLACK    GRASS. 


TABLE  II.  —  LIST  OP  GRASS-LIKE  RUSHES.     (Juncacece.) 


Common  Name. 

Systematic  Name. 

Time  of 
Flowering. 

Place  of  Growth. 

Hairy  Wood  Rush,  .  . 
Small  Wood  Rush,  .  . 
Common  Wood  Rush,  . 
Pointed  Rush,  .... 
Brown  Rush,  
Soft  Rush,  
Slender  Rush,  

Luzula  pilosa,  
Luzula  parviflora,  .  .  . 
Luzula  campestris,  .  . 
Luzula  arcuata,  .... 
Luzula  spicata,  .... 
Juncus  effusus,  .... 
Juncus  filiformis,  .  .  . 

May,  .  .  . 
July,  .  .  . 
May,  .  .  . 

June,  .  .  . 
July,  .  .  . 

Open  woods,  banks. 
Mountains. 
Fields,  dry  woods. 
Mountains. 
Mountains. 
Swamps,  common. 
Wet  banks. 

Baltic  Rush,  
Bristly  Rush,  
Sea  Rush,  
Pale  Rush,  

Juncus  balticus,  .... 
Juncus  setaceus,  .  .  . 
Juncus  maritimus,  .  . 
Juncus  scirpoides,  .  .  . 

July,  .  .  . 
July 

Sandy  shores. 
On  the  coast. 
Salt  marshes. 
Wet  banks. 

Weak  Rush,  
Sharp-fruited  Rush,  .  . 
Brownish-fruited  Rush,  . 
Marshal  Rush,  .... 
Round-headed  Rush,  . 
Conrad's  Rush,  .... 
Grass-leaved  Rush,  .  . 
Long-fruited  Rush,  .  . 
Three-leaved  Rush,  .  . 
Toad  Rush,  

Juncus  debilis,  .... 
Juncus  acuminatus,  .  . 
Juncus  articulatus,  .  . 
Juncus  militaris,  .  .  . 
Juncus  nodosus,  .... 
Juncus  Conradi,  .  .  . 
Juncus  marginatus,  .  . 
Juncus  Stygius,  .... 
Juncus  trifidus,  .... 

August,.  . 

July,  .  .  . 
July,  Aug., 
July,  .  .  . 

July,  .  .  . 
July,  .  .  . 

Wet  swamps. 
Boggy  swamps. 
Wet  places. 
Sandy  bogs. 
Borders  of  rivers. 
Borders  of  ponds. 
Moist,  sandy  swamps. 
Peat  swamps. 
Mountain  summits. 

Slender  Rush,  
Greene's  Rush,  .... 
Black  Grass.  . 

Juncus  tenuis,  .... 
Juncus  Greenei,  .... 
Juncus  bulbosus.  . 

July,  .  .  . 
July,  .  .  . 

August,  . 

Low  grounds,  fields. 
Sandy  salt  marshes. 
Borders  salt  marshes. 

The  most  prominent  and  valuable  of  these  plants  is 
the 

BLACK  GRASS  (Juncus  bulbosus,  var.  gerardi),  an  in- 
habitant of  salt  marshes.  This  plant  has  a  simple, 
slender  stem,  somewhat  flattened,  from  one  to  two  feet 
high.  It  is  considered  the  best  product  of  the  salt 
marshes,  and  grows  most  luxuriantly  along  their  borders, 
which  are  only  occasionally  overflowed  by  the  tides, 
often  working  its  way  to  the  uplands,  where  the  seed  is 
scattered,  in  large  quantities,  in  curing.  It  should  be 
cut  early,  and,  when  well  cured,  is  thought  to  be  nearly 
equal  in  value  to  good  English  hay.  Though  not  of 
itself  equal  in  value,  weight  for  weight,  to  "  goose 


THE    STAR    GRASSES.  199 

grass"  (Glyceria  maritima),  yet  the  product  per  acre  is 
so  much  larger  as  to  make  it  a  more  desirable  crop. 

There  is  also  a  small  family  of  plants  called  the  yel- 
low-eyed grasses,  or  the  star  grasses,  consisting  of 
only  two  species,  the  first  of  which  is  the  YELLOW- 
EYED  GRASS  (Xyris  bulbosa),  flowering  in  July,  August, 
and  September,  growing  on  sandy  and  peaty  soils,  and 
bogs  near  the  coast ;  and  the  second,  the  COMMON  YEL- 
LOW-EYED GRASS  (Xyris  caroliniana),  flowering  in 
August,  on  sandy  swamps.  These  are  beautiful  grasses, 
but  of  no  special  agricultural  value. 

The  sedges  and  plants  constituting  the  coarse  and 
innutritious  herbage,  properly  included  in  the  term 
CAREX,  form  a  large  and  prominent  genus  of  grass-like 
plants,  consisting  in  all  of  about  four  hundred  and  fifty 
species,  known  to  botanists,  extensively  diffused  over 
all  the  damp  parts  of  the  globe,  and  in  popular  language 
called  grasses. 

The  roots  of  the  sedges  are  perennial,  and  for  the 
most  part  creeping,  a  few  being  tufted  and  fibrous. 
The  stems  are  simple  and  free  from  joints  or  nodes. 
The  leaves  are  linear,  flat,  pointed,  roughish  on  the  sur- 
face, and  sharp  on  the  edges. 

A  few  species  of  carex  grow  on  sandy  hills  and  along 
the  sea-shore  ;  but  most  inhabit  marshes,  wet  meadows, 
swamps,  and  the  low,  wet  banks  of  streams  and  ditches, 
and  moist  woods.  None  of  them  are  of  any  real  agri- 
cultural value,  though  they  constitute  mainly  what  is 
termed  "  meadow  hay,"  or  more  properly  swale  hay,  in 
some  parts  of  the  country.  They  are  nearly  desti- 
tute of  mealy  and  saccharine  principles,  in  which  many 
of  the  true  grasses  abound,  and  are  eaten  by  cattle  only 
when  compelled  by  hunger,  in  the  want  of  better 
grasses.  It  not  unfrequently  happens,  however,  that 


200 


LIST    OF    SEDGES. 


there  is  an  admixture  of  the  higher  grasses  among  the 
carices  or  sedges,  such  as  the  fowl  meadow,  the  bastard 
fowl  meadow,  the  white  top,  or  some  of  the  other 
species  possessing  higher  nutritive  qualities  ;  and  then, 
of  course,  the  hay  made  from  the  swale  is  proportion- 
ably  improved,  and  may  thus  become  of  considerable 
value  for  winter  fodder. 

The  sedges  are  arranged  in  the  following  table : 

TABLE  III. — LIST  OF  CARICES  OR  SEDGES.   (Cyperacece.) 


Common  Name. 

Systematic  Name. 

Time  of 
Blossoming. 

Place  of  Growth. 

Yellow  Dwarf  Sedge,  .    . 

Cyperus  fiavescens,   .   . 

Aug.,  .    .   . 

Bogs. 

Diandrus  Sedge,  .... 

Cyperus  diandrus,  .   .   . 

Aug.,.   .   . 

Wet  grounds. 

Nuttall's  Sedge,  .... 

Cyperus  Nuttallii,  .   .   . 

Aug.,.   .   . 

Salt  marshes. 

Brown  Sedge,  

Cyperus  flavicomus,  .   . 

Aug.,  .    .    . 

Low  grounds. 

Chestnut  Sedge,  .... 

Cyperus  erythrorhizos,  . 

Aug.,  .   .   . 

Sandy  banks. 

Hichaux's  Sedge,   .   .   . 

Cyperus  Michauxianus, 

Aug  

Marshes. 

Engelmann's  Sedge,  .    . 

Cyperus  Engelmanni,    . 

— 

Low  banks. 

Bristle-spiked  Oalingale, 

Cyperus  strigosus,  .    .   . 

Aug.,  .   .   . 

Swamps. 

Dwarf  Odorous  Galingale, 

Cyperus  inflexus,   .   .   . 

Aug.,.    .    . 

River  banks. 

Pointed  Sedge,    .... 
Green  Sedge 

Cyperus  acuminatus,     . 

— 

Low  grounds. 

Toothed  Galingale,     .   . 

Cyperus  dentatus,  .    .    . 

Aug  ,  .   .   . 

Sandy  swamps. 

Nut  Grass,   

Cyperus  rotundus,     .   . 

_ 

Sandy  fields. 

Gray's  Galingale,    .   .   . 

Cyperus  Grayii,  .... 

Aug.,  .   .   . 

Barren  soils. 

Straw  Sedge,    

Cyperus  phymatodes,    . 

Aug.,  .   .   . 

Along  rivers. 

Schweinitz's  Galingale,  . 

Cyperus  Schweinitzii,    . 

Aug  

Shores  of  lakes. 

Orate  Sedge,  

Cyperus  ovularis,   .   .   . 

Sept  

Sandy  soils. 

Bent  Sedge,     

Cyperus  retrofractus     . 

Aug.    .    .    . 

Sandy  soils. 

Wiry  Sedge,     

Cyperus  filiculmis, 

Aug.,  .    .    . 

Dry  barrens. 

Roundhead  Sedge,  .  .  . 

Kyllingia  pumila,  .   .   . 

Aug.,  .   .   . 

Low  grounds. 

DuHchium,   

Duliohium  spathaceum, 

Aug.,  .   .   . 

Around  ponds. 

Dwarf  Hemioarpha,   .   . 

Hemicarpha     subsquar- 
rosa,  

July,   .   .    . 

Wet  sands. 

Horsetail  Rush,  .... 

Eleocharls  equisetoides, 

— 

Shallow  water. 

Quadrangular  Rush,  .   . 

Eleocharis      quadrangu- 
lata,  

- 

Low  grounds. 

Tubercled  Spike-rush,   . 

Eleocharis  tuberculosa, 

Aug.,.    .    . 

Sandy  swamps. 

Obtuse  Spike-rush,     .    . 

Eleocharis  obtusa,  .    .    . 

June,  .   . 

Bogs,  borders  of  ponds. 

Common  Spike-rush,  .   . 

Eleocharis  pahtstris,  .   . 

Aug.,  .   .   . 

Swamps. 

Olive  Spike-rush,    .   .   . 

Eleocharis  oltvacea,  .    . 

Aug  

Wet,  sandy  places. 

Brake  Spike-rush,  .   .   . 

Eleocharis  rostellata,  .   . 

— 

Marshes. 

Mediate  Spike-rush,  .   . 

Eleocharis  intermedia,  . 

Aug.,  .   .   . 

Wet  place*. 

Slender  Club^ush,    .   . 

Eleocharis  tennis,   .   .   . 

June,  .   .   . 

Wet  placet  . 

LIST    OF    SEDGES. 


201 


Common  Name. 

Systematic  Name. 

Time  of 
Blossoming. 

Place  of  Growth. 

Tufted  Rush,   

Eleocharis  compressa,   . 



Wet  places. 

Black  Club-rush,    .   .   . 

Eleocharis  Melanocarpa, 

_. 

Wet  sands. 

Flat  Stem-rush,  .... 

Eleocharis  tricostata,  .   . 

_ 

Robbins's  Club-rush,  .   . 

Eleocharis  Robbinsii,     . 

July,   .   .   . 

Ponds,  ditches. 

Hair  Club-rush,  .... 

Eleocharis  acicularis,     . 

June,  .   .   . 

Muddy  banks. 

Dwarf  Spike-rush,  .    .   . 

Eleocharis  pygmsea,  .   . 

Aug.,  .   .    . 

Salt  marshes. 

Threadlike  Rush,    .   .   . 

Eleocharis  filiculmis,  .   . 

— 

Wet  barrens. 

Scaly  Club-rush,     .   .   . 

Scirpus  caespitosus,    .   . 

July,   .   .   . 

Wet  mountains. 

Flat  Club-rush,   .... 

Scirpus  planifolius,     .   . 

June,  .    .    . 

Woods,  bogs. 

Floating  Club-rush,    .    . 

Scirpus  subterminalis,  . 

Aug.,  .   .   . 

Sluggish  streams. 

Chair-bottom  Rush,   .   . 

Scirpus  pungens,    .   .   . 

July,   .   .   . 

Salt  and  fresh  marshes. 

Olney'3  Rush,  

Scirpus  Olneyi,    .... 

July,   .   .   . 

Salt  marshes. 

Torrey'sRush  

Scirpus  Torreyi,  .... 

July,   .    .    . 

Borders  of  ponds. 

Bulrush,    . 

Scirpus  lacustris,    .   .   . 

July,   .   .   . 

Muddy  places. 

Weak-stem  Rush,  .   .    . 

Scirpus  debilis,    .... 

Aug.,  .   .    . 

Borders  of  rivers. 

Sea  Bulrush,    

Scirpus  maritimus,     .   . 

Aug.,  .   .   . 

•ilt  marshes. 

River  Rush,    

Scirpus  fluviatilis,  .   .   . 

July,  .   .   . 

Borders  of  lakes. 

Wood  Rush,    

Scirpus  sylvaticus,     .   . 

July,   .   .    . 

Wet  meadows. 

Cluster-head  Rush,    .   . 

Scirpus  polyphyllus,  .   . 

July,   .   .    . 

Swamps,  shady  borders. 

Porter's  Rush,     .... 

Scirpus  lineatus,     .   .   . 

July,  .   .   . 

Bogs. 

Wool  Grass,     

Scirpus  Eriophorum,  .    . 

Aug.,  .   .   . 

Wet  meadows,  swamps. 

Cotton  Grass,  

Eriophorum  Alpinum,   . 

May,   .    .   . 

Peat  swamps. 

Hare's-tail,  

Eriophorum  vaginatum, 

June,  .   .   . 

Mossy  swamps. 

Rusty  Cotton  Grass,  .   . 

Eriophorum  Virginicum, 

July,   .   .   . 

Swamps. 

Broad  Cotton  Grass,  .    . 

Eriophorum  polystachy- 
on,     

June,  .   .   . 

Boggy  meadows. 

Narrow  Cotton  Grass,    . 

Eriophorum  gracile,  .   . 

July,  .  .   . 

Mossy  swamps. 

Tall  Fimbristylis,    .    .    . 

Fimbristylis  spadicea,   . 

Aug.,  .   .   . 

Salt  marshes. 

Spreading  Fimbristylis, 

Fimbristylis  laxa,  .   .   . 

Aug.,.   .    . 

Wet  clays. 

Tufted  Fimbristylis,   .    . 

Fimbristylis  autumalis,  . 

Sept.,.   .  . 

Low  grounds. 

Hair-like  Fimbristylis,  . 

Fimbristylis  capillaris,  . 

Aug.,.   .   . 

Sandy  fields. 

Umbrella  Grass,     .   .   . 

Fuirena  squarrosa,     .   . 

Aug.,  .   .    . 

Sandy,  wet  places. 

Bald  Rush,  

Psilocarya  scirpoides,    . 

July,  .  .   . 

Inundated  swamps. 

Dichomena,  

Dichomena  leucocephala, 

Aug.,  .   .   . 

Moist  barrens. 

Horned  Rush,  

Ceratoschoenus    cornicu- 



Borders  of  ponds. 

Clustered  Rush,  .   .  .'  . 

lata,  
Ceratoschoenus    macros- 
tachya,     

- 

Borders  of  ponds. 

Wrinkled  Beak-rush,     . 

Rhynchospora  cymosa,  . 

— 

Low  grounds. 

Torrey's  Beak-rush,   .    . 

RhynchosporaTorreyana 

— 

Pine  barrens. 

Drooping  Beak-rush,  .   . 

Rhynchospora  inexpansa 

— 

Low  grounds. 

Brown  Beak-rush,  .   .   . 

Rhynchospora  fusca,  .   . 

July,   .   .   . 

Low  grounds. 

Slender  Beak-rush,     .   . 

Rhynchospora  gracilenta, 

_ 

Low  grounds. 

White  Beak-rush,  .    .   . 

Rhynchospora  alba,  .   . 

July,  .   .   . 

Mossy  swamps. 

Small  Beak-rush,    .   .   . 

Rhynchospora  capillacea 

July,   .  .   . 

Swamps,  marshes. 

Tufted  Beak-rush,  .   .   . 

Rhynchospora  Kniesker- 
nii 

_ 

Bog,  iron-ore  banks. 

Common  Beak-rush,  .   . 

Rhynchospora  glomerata, 

July,  .   .   . 

Boggy  grounds. 

202 


LIST    OP    SEDGES. 


Common  Name. 

Systematic  Name. 

Time  of 
Blossoming. 

Place  of  Growth. 

Round  Beak-rush,  .    .   . 

Ihynchospora  cephalan- 
tha,    .       ... 

Aug.,  .   .    . 

Sandy  swamps. 

Smooth  Twig-rush,     .   . 

Cladium  mariscoides,     . 

July,   .   .    . 

Borders  of  ponds. 

Whip  Grass 

icleria  triglomerata,  .    . 

fnlv 

Swamps  moist  thickets. 

Sessile  Nut-rush,    .   .    . 

Scleria  reticularis,  .   .   . 

«iuiy,    .    .    . 
Aug.,  .    .   . 

Sandy  swamps. 

Loose  Nut-rush,  .... 

Scleria  laxa,     

Aug.,  .   .   . 

Sandy  swamps. 

Few-flowered  Nut-rush, 

Scleria  pauciflora,  .    .    . 

July,    .    .    . 

Swumps,  hills. 

Dwarf  Nut-rush,     .    .   . 

Scleria  verticillata,  .   .    . 

June,  .    .    . 

Swamps. 

Short-beaked  Sedge,  .    . 

Carex  gynocrates,  .    .    . 

— 

Swampa. 

Alpine  Sedge,  

}arex  scirpoidea,   .   .   . 

Mountain  tops. 

Small-head  Sedge,  .    .   . 

Carex  capitata,   .... 

July,  .   .   . 

Mountain  tops. 

Few-flowered  Sedge,  .   . 

Carex  pauciflora,    .   .   . 

_ 

Peat  swamps. 

Bristle-stalked  Sedge,    . 

Carex  polytrichoides,     . 

May,   .    .   . 

Low  ground,  woods. 

Frazer'g  Sedge,   .... 

Carex  Fraseriana,  .   .    . 

— 

Rich  woods. 

Willdenow's  Sedge,    .   . 

Carex  Willdeuovii,     .   . 

May,   .   .    . 

Moist,  shady  places. 

Rough-beak  Sedge,    .   . 

Carex  stendelii,  .... 

— 

Woody  liills. 

Back's  Sedge,  

Carex  Backii,  

— 

Rocky  hills. 

Two-seeded  Sedge,  .    .   . 

Carex  disperma,     .   .    . 

June,  .   .   . 

Mossy  swamps. 

Long-rooted  Sedge,    .   . 

Carex  chordorhiza,    .   . 

May,   .   .    . 

Mossy  swamps. 

Oval-headed  Sedge,    .   . 

Carex  cephalophora,  .   . 

May,   .   .   . 

Hill-sides  and  fields. 

Muhlenberg's  Sedge,  .   . 

Carex  Muhlenbergii,  .    . 

April,  .   .   . 

Rocky  hill-sides. 

Dry-spiked  Sedge,  .   .   . 

Carex  sicata,   

— 

Sandy  plains. 

Rose  Sedge,  

Carex  rosea,    

May,   .   .   . 

Moist  woods. 

Retroflexed  Sedge,     .   . 

Carex  retroflexa,    .   .   . 

May,   .   .   . 

Open  woods,  swamps. 

Bur-reed  Sedge,  .... 

Carex  sparganioides,    . 

May,   .   .   . 

Low,  swampy  grounds. 

Awl-fruited  Sedge,     .   . 

Carex  stipata,     .... 

April,.   .   . 

Swamps,  low  grounds. 

Fox  Sedge,  
Bristly-spiked  Sedge, 

Carex  vulpinoidea,     .   . 

May,   .   .   . 

Jimp 

Low  grounds,  common. 
Wet  meadows. 

Bromus-like  Sedge,    .   . 

Carex  bromoides,    .   .   . 

May,  .  .   . 

Wet  swamps. 

Foxtail  Sedge,     .... 

Carex  alopecoidea,     .    . 

_ 

Woods. 

Sartwell's  Sedge,     .   .   . 

Carex  Surtwellii,     .    .    . 

— 

Lesser-panicled  Sedge,  . 

Carex  teretiuscula, 

June,  .    .   . 

Swnmps,  common. 

Large-panicled  Sedge,  . 

Carex  decomposita,    .    . 

Swamps. 

Three-seeded  Sedge,  .    . 

Carex  trisperma,    .    .    . 

June,  .   .   . 

Peat  swamps. 

Dewey's  Sedge,  .... 

Carex  Deweyana,  .   .    . 

June,  .   .   . 

Moist  woods. 

White  Carex,  

Carex  canesceug,    .   .    . 

May,   .   .   . 

Wet  meadows. 

Little  Prickly  Sedge,  .   . 

Carex  stellulata,     .   .   . 

May,   .   .   . 

Wet  meadows. 

Cluster-spiked  Sedge,    . 

Carex  tenuiflora,     .   .    . 

June,  .   .    . 

Mossy  swamps. 

Broom-like  Sedge,  .   .   . 

Carex  scoparia,  .... 

— 

Wet  meadows. 

Straw-colored  Sedge,  .   . 

Carex  straminea,    .    .    . 

May,   .   .   . 

Borders  of  woods. 

Long-stalked  Sedge,  .    . 

Carex  pedunculata,   .   . 

April,.   .   . 

Rocky  hills. 

Square-headed  Sedge,    . 

Carex  equarrosa,    .   .   . 

May,   .    .   . 

Low  meadows,  thickets. 

Buxbaum's  Sedge,  .   .   . 

Carex  Buxbaumii,  .   .   . 

May,   .    .    . 

Mossy  swamps. 

Three-headed  Sedge,     . 

Carex  triceps,  

May,   .   .   . 

Woods,  meadows. 

Green-spiked  Sedge,  .   . 

Carex  virescens,     .    .    . 

May,  .   .   . 

Woods,  hill-sides. 

Slender  Nodding  Sedge, 

Carex  gracillima,    .    .    . 

June,  .    .   . 

Moist  grounds. 

Showy  Sedge,  

Carex  formosa,    .   .   .    • 

May,  .   .    . 

Wet  meadows. 

Davis's  Sedge,     .  .  .  . 

Carex  Davisii,     .  .   .   . 

May,   .    .   . 

Swamps,  river  banks. 

LIST    OF    SEDGES. 


203 


Common  Name. 

Systematic  Name.         1  Blo:ljm,m°n' 

Place  of  Growth. 

Rigid  Sedge,    

Carex  rigida,   

July,   .   .    . 

Mountain  summits. 

Large  Bog  Sedge,   .   .   . 

Carex  augustata,    .   .   . 

May,   .   .   . 

Swamps,  common. 

Smaller  Bog  Sedge,    .   . 

Carex  ccespitosa,    .   .   . 

May,  .   .   . 

Swamps,  river  banks. 

Water  Sedge,  

Carex  aquatilis,  .... 

June,  .   .    . 

Borders  of  lakes. 

Golden-fruited  Sedge,    . 

Carex  aurea,    

May,   .   .   . 

Borders  of  swamps. 

Fringed  Sedge,    .... 

Carex  crinita,  

May,   .   .    . 

Swamps,  river  banks. 

Few-fruited  Sedge,     .    . 

Carex  oligosperma,    .   . 

June,  .   .    . 

Mountains,  swamps. 

Inflated  Sedge,    .... 

Carex  bullata,    .... 

May,   .   .    . 

Swamps. 

Cylindrical-spiked  Sedge, 

Carex  cylindrica,    .   .   . 

— 

Swamps. 

Bladder-fruited  Sedge,  . 

Carex  utriculata,    .   .   . 

May,  .  .  . 

Wet  swamps. 

Awl-fruited  Sedge,  .   .   . 

Carex  subulata,  .... 

May,   .   .   . 

Cedar  swamps. 

Tall  Yellow  Sedge,  .   .   . 

Carex  folliculata,    .    .   . 

June,  .    .    . 

Swamps,  bogs. 

Swollen-fruited  Sedge,   . 

Carex  intumescens,    .   . 

June,  .    .    . 

Wet  grounds. 

Hop  Sedge,  

Carex  luimlini 

June,  .   .    . 

Swamps. 

Rough-fruited  Sedge,     . 

Carex  scabrata,  .... 

May,   .   .    . 

Borders  of  brooks. 

Schweinitz's  Sedge,    .   . 

Carex  Schweinitzii,    .   . 

May,   .   .   . 

Swamps. 

Late-fruited  Sedge,     .   . 

Carex  retrorsa,   .... 

May,   .    .    . 

Borders  of  ponds. 

Long-pointed  Sedge,  .    . 

Carex  tentaculata,  .   .   . 

May,   .   .   . 

Swamps. 

Porcupine  Sedge,    .   .    . 

Carex  hystricina,    .   .   . 

June,  .   .   . 

Swamps. 

Cyperus-like  Sedge,   .   . 

Carex  Pseudo-Cyperus, 

June,  .   .   . 

Sw'ps,  sluggish  streams. 

Long-beaked  Sedge,  .   . 

Carex  longirostris,     .    . 

June,  .   .   . 

Shady,  rocky  places. 

Hairy-fruited  Sedge,  .   . 

Carex  trichocarpa,     .   . 

June,  .   .   . 

Marshes  and  lakes. 

Awned  Sedge,  .... 

Carex  aristata,    .... 

— 

Lake  shores. 

Umbel-spiked  Sedge,     . 

Carex  umbellata,    .   .   . 

May,   .   .    . 

Rocky  hill-sides. 

Pennsylvanian  Sedge,    . 

Carex  Pennsylvanica,    . 

April,.   .   . 

Dry  woods. 

New  England  Sedge,  .   . 

Carex  Novse-Anglise,    . 

June,  .   .   . 

Woody  hills. 

Slender-leaved  Sedge,    . 

Carex  filiformis,  .... 

May,  .   .   . 

Peat  swamps. 

Woolly-fruited  Sedge,    . 

Carex  lanuginosa,  .   .    . 

May,   .   .   . 

Swamps. 

Sh'tWoolly-spik'd  Sedge, 

Carex  vestita,  

May,   .   .   . 

Moist,  sandy  soils. 

Pubescent  Sedge,    .   .   . 

Carex  pubescens,   .    .   . 

May,   .   .   . 

Woods,  swamps. 

Mud  Sedge,  

Carex  limosa,  

June,  .   .   . 

Mossy  swamps. 

Livid  Sedge,    

Carex  livida,   

June,  .   .    . 

Mossy  swamps. 

(Eiler's  Sedge,  

Carex  (Ederi,  

May]  •   •   • 

Limestone  lands. 

Pale  Pubescent  Sedge,  . 

Carex  pallescens,    .   .   . 

May,   .   .   . 

Swamps. 

Torrey's  Sedge,  .... 

Carex  Torreyi,    .... 

,_., 

Northward. 

Striated  Sedge,    .... 

Carex  striata,  

May,  .  .   . 

Swamps. 

Granular-spiked  Sedge, 

Carex  granularis,    .   .   . 

May,   .   .   . 

Wet  swamps. 

Loose-flowered  Sedge,   . 

Carex  laxiflora,  .... 

May,   .   .   . 

Swamps,  moist  woods. 

Conical-fruited  Sedge,    . 

Carex  conoidea,  .... 

May,   .   .   . 

Wet  swamps. 

Slender  Wood  Sedge,     . 

Carex  digitalis,   .... 

May,   .   .   . 

Woods,  hill-sides. 

Hitchcock's  Sedge,     .   .  i  Carex  Tlitchcockiana,    . 

May,   .    .   . 

Woods,  hill-sides. 

Small  Few-fruited  Sedge,  '  Carex  olipocarpa,   .   .   . 

May,   .   .   . 

Woods. 

Crooked-necked  S^dge,  .  \  Carex  tetanica,   .... 

May,    .   .    . 

Margin  of  lakes. 

Two-edged  Sedge,  .   .    .    Carex  anceps,     .... 

May,   .    .   . 

Woods. 

Pale,  Smooth  Sedge,  .   .    Carex  blanda,  

May,   .   .    . 

Swamps,  open  woods. 

Crawe's  Sedge,    .... 

Carex  Crawei,     .... 

— 

Banks  of  rivers. 

Plantain-leave!  Sedge,  .    Carex  plantaglnea,    .   . 

April,.   .    . 

Shady,  rocky  ravines. 

Carey's  Sedge,    ....    Carex  Careyana,    .   .   . 

May,  .   .   . 

Shady,  dry  woods. 

204 


RECLAIMING    SWAMP    LANDS. 


Common  Name. 

Systematic  Name. 

Time  of 
Blossoming. 

Place  of  Growth. 

Bris'd-lea'd  White  Sedge, 

Carex  eburnea,  .... 

May,  .  .  . 

Limestone  hills. 

Fringed  Sedge,    .... 

Carex  flexilis,     .... 

June,  .   .   . 

Moist,  shady  places. 

Sh't-beak'd  Woody  Sedge, 

Carex  arctata,     .... 

May,  .  .   . 

Woods,  swamps. 

Weak  Sedge,   

Carex  debilis,  

May,  .  .  . 

Woods,  swamps. 

Millet-like  Sedge,    .   .   . 

Carex  miliacea,  .... 

May,  .   .   . 

M'et  swamps. 

Lake  Sedge  

Carex  lucustris,  .... 

June,  .   .   . 

Deep  swamps. 

Tuckerman's  Sedge,  .   . 

Carex  Tuckermani,    .   . 

_ 

Wet  swamps. 

Washington's  Sedge,  .   . 

Carex  Washingtoniana, 

— 

Mt.  Washington. 

Gray's  Sedge,  

Carex  Grayii,  

July,  .  .   . 

Swamps. 

Bog  Sedge,  
Sea  Carex.   . 

Carex  acuta,    
Carex  arenaria.  .    , 

June.  .Tiilv. 

Dense  bogs. 

fijuulv  Rfa-ghnrpfl- 

The  above  table  includes  nearly,  if  not  quite,  all  the 
species  of  sedges  known  and  described  as  growing  in 
this  country,  and  is  thought  to  be  very  complete. 

As  already  intimated,  none  of  these  coarse  sedges  are 
rich  in  nutritive  elements,  and  none  are  worthy  of  cul- 
tivation. The  farmer's  care  should  be  to  eradicate  them, 
and  supply  their  places  with  the  higher  and  more  nutri- 
tious grasses.  This  may  be  done  by  thorough  draining, 
an  operation  which  lies  at  the  foundation  of  all  success- 
ful management  of  low  lands,  and  without  which  they 
are  comparatively  worthless,  while,  if  properly  re- 
claimed, they  are  among  the  best  and  most  productive 
lands  on  the  farm. 

When  properly  improved,  and  sown  to  the  higher 
and  better  grasses,  like  Timothy,  redtop,  orchard  grass, 
rough-stalked  meadow,  &c.,  they  will  produce  the  most 
luxuriant  crops  for  several  years  in  succession,  often 
paying  the  cost  of  improvement  the  first  year.  Low 
grounds  and  swamps  are  the  farmer's  muck-beds.  Thou- 
sands of  acres  of  such  lands  now  lie  worthless  and 
unproductive,  waiting  only  to  be  reclaimed  to  add  vastly 
to  the  material  wealth  of  the  country. 


CHAPTER    V. 

VARIOUS    CLASSIFICATIONS    OP    THE    GRASSES. 

MANY  of  the  grasses  which  have  been  described  in 
the  preceding  chapters  possess  but  little  value  for  the 
purposes  of  cultivation,  it  is  true,  but  it  should  not  be 
forgotten  that  they  all  have  their  uses ;  and  these  uses 
in  the  grand  economy  of  nature  are  exceedingly  im- 
portant, however  they  may  appear  to  our  short-sighted 
vision. 

No  plant  comes  up  to  the  sunlight,  or  expands  its 
beautiful  leaves,  that  does  not  derive  its  support  in 
part  from  the  atmosphere  ;  and,  even  though  its  life  be 
short,  it  adds  materially,  in  its  decay,  to  the  vast  mass 
of  vegetable  mould  which  covers  the  surface  of  the 
globe,  and  forms  the  richness  of  the  soil.  This  surface 
mould  has  been  accumulating  for  ages  in  many  locali- 
ties ;  every  plant  that  grew  in  ages  past  bringing  down 
to  us  in  a  tangible  form  the  riches  with  which  the  air 
that  surrounded  it  was  stored,  which  now  lie  waiting 
the  farmers'  use  in  meadows  of  exhaustless  fertility,  in 
swamps  and  bogs  of  vast,  increasing  utility  in  our  agri- 
culture, and  in  beds  of  peat,  the  value  of  which  we 
have  scarcely  begun  to  appreciate.  Thus,  the  grasses 
which  are  not  cultivated  for  their  direct  nutritive  qual- 
ities are  not  without  their  value,  and  they  deserve  our 
careful  study  and  attention. 

It  is  evident  that  various  classifications  of  the  grasses 
may  be  made,  and  that  many  species  might  be  separated 
18  (205) 


206  THE    JUNGLE    GRASS. 

into  distinct  groups,  which  would  greatly  facilitate  the 
study  of  this  family  of  plants  ;  and  this  classification 
the  reader  can  readily  make,  at  his  convenience.  As  an 
example,  we  have 

I.  The  BUSH  or  JUNGLE  GRASSES,  or  such  as  are  not 
inclined  to  grow  with  other  species,  and  form  a  close, 
matted  turf  or  sward.  Of  these  we  have  as  examples 
the 

Tufted  Hair  Grass  (Aira  ccespitosa) . 
Meadow  Oat  Grass  (Avena  pratensis). 
Tall  Fescue  Grass  (Festuca  elatior). 

A  few  others,  if  sown  alone,  will  assume  somewhat 
the  same  form,  in  tufts  or  cushions ;  as, 
Sheep's  Fescue  (Festuca  ovina). 
Hard  Fescue  (Festuca  duriuscula}. 
Orchard  Grass  (Dactylis  glomerata). 

This  peculiarity  in  the  growth  of  the  last  three 
grasses  is  prevented  by  close  pasturing,  rolling,  and 
proper  cultivation.  These  operations  improve  upon 
nature,  since,  if  left  to  themselves,  they  would  far  more 
certainly  assume  the  jungle  growth,  such  as  is  often 
seen  on  poor,  thin  pasture  soils  ;  a  close,  fine,  matted 
sward  being  attained  only  by  careful  cultivation. 

The  habit  of  jungle  or  tufted  growth  is,  it  will  be 
perceived,  rather  an  exceptional  one,  the  general  and 
one  of  the  most  important  characteristics  of  the  true 
grasses  being  to  grow  and  form  a  turf  on  good  soils. 
Many  of  the  sedges  and  some  of  the  coarse  grasses 
form  tussocks  in  wet  meadows  and  swampy  places, 
while  neither  wheat,  rye,  barley,  nor  oats,  ever  form  a 
close  turf  or  sward. 

A  little  reflection  will  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is 
mainly  the  better  and  more  valuable  grasses,  such  as 
Timothy,  redtop,  meadow  foxtail,  June  grass,  <fec.,  which 


AQUATICS. —  SALT-MARSH    GRASSES.  207 

have  this  property.  This  mode  of  growth  has  a  far 
more  important  bearing  upon  practical  agriculture  than 
one,  at  first  view,  would  suppose ;  since  it  stores  away 
near  the  surface  a  vast  accumulation  of  materials  of 
great  value  in  improving  the  qualities  of  the  soil,  when 
turned  over,  to  say  nothing  of  the  beauty  it  adds  to 
the  landscape,  or  the  firmness  it  gives  to  the  surface  of 
the  earth. 

II.  The  AQUATIC  or  WATER  GRASSES  form  another 
distinct  group  ;  and  among  these  are  the 

Reed  Canary  Grass  (Phalaris  arundinacea). 

Common  Reed  Grass  (Phragmites  communis). 

Water  Spear  Grass  ( Glyceria  aquatica}. 

Common  Manna  Grass  (Glyceria  fluitans). 

Rice  Grass  (Leersia  oryzoides}. 

Floating  Foxtail  (Al&pecurus  geniculatus). 

Wild  Rice  (Zizania  aquatica). 

These  grasses  grow  mostly  in  water,  and  are  not  culti- 
vated with  us  as  agricultural  grasses,  with  the  exception, 
perhaps,  of  the  first.  Wild  rice  grass  is  sometimes  cul- 
tivated, and  yields  large  crops  at  the  South,  and  floating 
foxtail  in  Europe. 

III.  MARSH  or  SALT  GRASSES,  among  which  we  have 
Salt  Reed  Grass  (Spartina polystachya). 

Rush  Salt  Grass  (Spartina  juncea). 
Salt  Marsh  Grass  (Spartina  stricta}. 
Black  Grass  (Juncus  bulbosus). 
Beach  Grass  (Ammophila  arundinacea}. 
Goose  Grass  (Glyceria  maritima). 

IY.  FIELD  or  PASTURE  GRASSES.  —  Under  this  head 
may  be  included  a  very  large  number  of  species,  all  of 
which  have  been  described  above.  They  might  be  sub- 
divided according  to  the  soils  and  situations  which  they 
naturally  affect ;  for,  though  a  grass  may  sometimes  be 


208  ANNUAL    WEEDS. 

found  or  placed  in  a  soil  which  is  not  naturally  fitted 
for  it,  yet  no  species  will  arrive  at  its  most  perfect 
development  on  a  soil  not  well  adapted  to  it. 
Among  these  might  be  mentioned,  as  examples, 

Timothy  (Phleum  pratense). 
Meadow  Foxtail  (Alopecurus  pratensis). 
Common  Spear  Grass  (Poa  pratensis}. 
Orchard  Grass  (Dactylis  glomerata). 
Perennial  Rye  Grass  (Lolium  perenne). 
Italian  Rye  Grass  (Lolium  italicum). 
Redtop  (Agrostis  vulgaris). 
White  top  (Agrostis  alba). 
Downy  Oat  Grass  (Avena  pubescens). 
Meadow  Soft  Grass  (Holcus  lanatus). 
Meadow  Fescue  (Festuca  pratensis). 
Field  Barley  Grass  (Hordeum  pratense). 
Tall  Oat  Grass  (Arrhenatherum  avenaceum). 

Timothy,  as  has  already  been  seen,  is  the  standard 
field  grass  in  this  group,  and  is  suited  to  all  climates  of 
this  country  north  of  Virginia  and  Tennessee,  though  it 
sometimes  suffers  from  drought  in  states  further  north. 
It  is  a  field,  and  not  a  pasture  grass,  as  it  will  not  endure 
very  close  and  frequent  cropping.  This  is  seen  in  the 
readiness  with  which  a  Timothy  stubble  parches  up, 
unless  there  is  rain  or  cloudy  weather  immediately  after 
it  is  cut. 

V.  ANNUAL  WEEDS,  which,  though  proper  grasses, 
are  often  very  troublesome  in  cultivated  grounds,  either 
on  account  of  their  creeping,  underground  stems,  or 
their  rapid  and  luxuriant  growth.  Thrifty  farming  is  a 
ceaseless  struggle  against  these  pests,  and  the  farmer  is 
generally  careful  to  keep  as  clear  as  possible  of  them. 
Among  these  may  be  named 


GREEN    MANURING    GRASSES.  209 

Chess  (Bromus  secalinus). 

Soft  Brome  Grass  (Bromus  mollis). 

Slender  Foxtail  (Alopecurus  agrestis). 

Fiorin  (Agrostis  stolonifera). 

Couch  Grass  (Triticum  repens}. 

Rough- stalked  Meadow  (Poa  trivialis). 

Annual  Spear  Grass  (Poa  annua). 

Blue  or  Wire  Grass  (Poa  compressa}. 
Of  these,  the  last  four  are  not  always  considered 
as  weeds,  since  they  are  sometimes  sown  as  pasture 
grasses ;  but,  when  they  appear  in  cultivated  grounds, 
in  gravel-walks,  and  avenues,  they  are  exceedingly 
troublesome,  and  difficult  to  eradicate. 

VI.  GRASSES  ADAPTED  FOR  CULTURE  AS  GREEN  MA- 
NURING PLANTS. — It  is  evident,  on  reflection,  that  green 
vegetable  manuring  is  the  natural  and  cheapest  means 
of  replenishing  the  constant  waste  and  exhaustion  of 
the  richer  qualities  of  the  soil  in  the  production  of 
grains  and  the  higher  grasses  used  in  the  nourishment 
of  animals,  especially  when  these  products  are  con- 
sumed at  a  distance  from  where  they  grew.  It  is  rare 
that  the  farmer  restores  to  the  soil  all  or  as  much  as  he 
takes  from  it.  Even  the  animal  can  hardly  be  said  to 
restore  to  the  land  on  which  he  feeds  all  he  takes  from 
it,  unless  his  body  is  left  to  decay  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  sod  which  helped  to  build  up  his  bony  and  mus- 
cular frame  ;  and  this  is  rarely  the  case  in  practical 
farming.  The  farmer  himself  sells  more  or  less  of  the 
products  of  his  labor  and  of  his  soil  to  be  transported 
to  considerable  distances,  never  to  be  restored;  and 
hence  the  land  very  rarely  receives  the  full  compensa- 
tion for  what  has  been  taken  from  it  in  the  shape  of 
hay,  grains,  vegetables,  or  pasturage. 

Nature,  left  to  herself,  prevents  any  exhaustion  by  the 
18* 


210  ELEMENTS    OF    THE   AIR. 

boundless  luxuriance  of  vegetable  growth.  Light  and 
air,  heat  and  water,  are  the  sources  of  vitality,  and  they 
become  incorporated,  as  it  were,  or  assume  a  tangible 
form,  in  the  green  masses  produced  in  the  surface  of  the 
earth;  and  these, in  decaying, constantly  increase  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil,  because  they  not  only  restore  to  it  the 
inorganic  substances  which  they  took  from  it,  but  many 
others  which  they  drew  from  the  atmosphere,  and  em- 
bodied in  their  leaves,  and  stalks,  and  roots. 

The  atmosphere  is  known  to  be  full  of  the  very  ele- 
ments which  it  is  most  desirable  to  secure  and  turn  to 
our  own  use ;  and  there  is  no  way  in  which  the  farmer 
can  avail  himself  of  these  invaluable  aids  so  surely  as 
by  embodying  them  in  the  form  of  green  vegetable 
masses,  and  turning  them  fresh  beneath  the  surface, 
where  they  soon  decay,  and  are  ready  to  nourish  other 
vegetable  bodies,  that  is,  to  produce  crops  which  are  of 
money  value. 

Green  manuring  has  rarely,  or  never,  failed  of  pro- 
ducing satisfactory  results,  when  it  has  been  economi- 
cally and  judiciously  applied ;  and  its  value  as  the  true 
mode  of  fertilizing  the  earth  has  been  sufficiently  proved 
in  practice,  in  cases  where  the  farmer  has  ploughed  in 
clover,  buckwheat,  oats,  &c.  The  result  or  effect  of 
green  manuring  is  well  known,  and  the  truth  of  the  sys- 
tem is  sufficiently  shown  in  the  fact  that  it  is  strictly  in 
accordance  with  nature. 

But  our  ordinary  modes  have  usually  been  too  expen- 
sive, either  on  account  of  the  cost  of  the  seed  of  the 
clovers  or  other  large  seeds,  or  in  causing  the  loss  of 
the  crop  for  the  year,  that  is,  in  fallowing;  or  in  failing 
to  secure  the  full  benefit  of  the  system,  from  the  use  of 
too  few  varieties  or  species  of  plants,  and  consequently 
having  too  small  a  mass  of  vegetable  matter ;  yet,  not- 
withstanding this  failure  to  secure  the  highest  advan- 


GREEN    VEGETABLE    MASSES.  211 

tages  of  which  the  system  is  susceptible,  the  farmer 
has,  by  means  of  turning  in  green  crops,  increased  the 
amount  and  depth  of  the  mould  in  his  soil,  and  thus 
fitted  it  to  produce  a  stronger  stalk  and  more  perfect 
grain,  and  saved  the  expense  and  labor  of  hauling  the 
heavier  manures,  his  green  crops  for  manuring  being 
ready  at  hand. 

Now,  instead  of  relying  upon  clover  or  buckwheat 
mainly,  which  has  commonly  been  the  case,  suppose  the 
farmer  should  select  the  seeds  of  such  vegetables  as  are 
adapted  to  this  system,  and  productive  of  the  best 
results,  and  take  pains  to  plant  them  for  the  express 
purpose  of  green  manuring,  either  along  with  his  wheat 
and  other  winter  grain,  to  be  turned  in  green  with  the 
stubble  the  following  summer,  or  in  the  spring,  to  be 
ploughed  in  in  autumn  on  wheat-land,  or  land  to  be  sown 
with  other  winter  crops. 

His  object  would  be  to  produce  the  largest  possible 
mass.  He  should,  then,  select  the  smallest-seeded  plants, 
other  things  being  equal,  and  a  large  variety  of  them. 
These  seeds  may  be  selected  by  himself  on  his  own 
farm,  and  cost  him  only  the  trouble  of  gathering,  say 
from  fifty  cents  to  a  dollar  for  ten  pounds,  or  enough  to 
sow  an  acre,  while  he  may  bring  about  far  more  satisfac- 
tory results  in  the  infinitely  greater  mass  of  vegetable 
matter  which  he  can  thus  produce. 

This  is  an  important  consideration,  not  only  from  the 
fact  that  a  great  variety  will  hasten  the  fermentation  in 
the  soil,  and  thus  materially  elevate  the  temperature, 
but  because  different  varieties  or  species  of  plants  take 
from  the  atmosphere  and  embody  different  elements, 
and  also  because  it  is  only  by  a  large  number  of  spe- 
cies that  a  close,  thick  mass  can  be  obtained.  The  best 
results  can  only  be  brought  about  by  the  vigor  of 
growth  and  the  variety.  The  vigor  of  growth  depends 


212  SIZE    OF''  SEEDS. 

much  upon  the  great  variety,  and  the  variety  is  attained 
cheaply  by  plants  of  small  seeds. 

In  a  pound  of  buckwheat,  for  instance,  there  are  only 
about  fifteen  thousand  seeds  ;  in  red  clover,  a  little 
over  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  ;  in  rye  and  oats, 
about  twenty  thousand ;  while  in  many  of  the  best 
plants  for  manuring,  there  are  over  a  million  grains  to 
the  pound. 

In  what  does  the  superiority  of  clover  as  a  green 
manuring  plant  consist?  Is  it  not  in  the  vast  amount 
of  water  stored  away  in  its  succulent  leaves  and  stems, 
which  causes  it  to  decay  with  great  rapidity  when 
buried  in  the  soil,  and  thus  furnish  a  supply  of  fertiliz- 
ing materials  in  the  quickest  manner?  In  this  respect 
it  is  no  doubt  exceedingly  valuable  for  the  purpose ; 
but  is  it  not  possible  to  render  other  plants,  whose 
seeds  are  far  less  expensive,  equally  watery  and  luxu- 
riant, by  sowing  them  thickly  together,  and  by  a  judi- 
cious selection  of  large  and  leafy  plants  for  protecting 
the  smaller  ones  by  their  shade  ? 

If  the  above  suggestions  are  wrorthy  of  consideration, 
it  would  seem  to  follow  that  many  of  the  plants  now 
regarded  as  weeds,  and  never  cultivated,  except  in  some 
cases  for  the  beauty  of  their  flowers,  may  be  valuable 
to  sow  and  turn  in  as  green  manure.  Any  plants,  in- 
deed, which  will  grow  with  others,  and  form  a  great 
mass  of  green  vegetable  growth,  embodying  and  cor- 
porifying  the  fertilizing  elements  of  the  air,  may  be 
made  useful  and  serviceable  to  the  farmer. 

It  is  not  my  purpose,  in  this  connection,  to  develop  a 
complete  system  of  green  manuring  by  a  description 
of  all  the  plants  most  valuable  to  be  used  for  this  ob- 
ject, but  only  to  suggest  that  some  of  the  species  of  the 
grasses  which  have  been  alluded  to  in  the  preceding 
pages  may  be  important  as  green  manure  plants,  espe- 


GEEEN    MANURING    GRASSES. 


213 


cially  to  sow  with  some  of  the  larger  and  ranker  plants, 
which  may  serve  to  protect  them,  and  to  leave  the 
reader,  who  may  be  interested  in  experimenting  in  this 
direction,  to  add  to  the  mixtures  according  to  his  judg- 
ment and  pleasure,  bearing  in  mind  that  when  used  for 
the  green  manuring,  neither  the  coarser  plants  nor  the 
grasses  are  allowed  to  blossom  and  go  to  seed,  the 
design  being  to  turn  them  in  before  this  stage  of  their 
growth,  in  which  case  the  ground  is  not  injured  by  foul 
seeds.  Suppose,  then,  we  take,  as 


MANURING    GRASSES, 

One  pound  of  Bristly  Foxtail,  600,000  seeds. 

"      "  Wood  Hair  Grass,  2,000,000 

"       "      "  Tufted  Hair  Grass,  2,000,000 

Meadow  Soft  Grass,  1 ,500,000 
Perennial  Rye  Grass,  250,000 
Chess,  150,000 

Millet  Grass,  1,200,000 
Melic  Grass,  500,000 

«'       "      "  Tall  Oat  Grass,  350,000 

« Tickle  Grass,  4,000,000    " 

These  are  some  of  the  wild  grasses  which  will  sug- 
gest themselves  to  the  mind  of  the  reader,  who  has 
made  himself  familiar  with  the  natural  history  of  the 
grasses,  as  given  in  chapter  first,  and  such  as  are 
adapted  for  use  on  medium  soils ;  and  they  may  be 
increased,  as  already  intimated.  They  are  all  to  be 
found  in  the  places  indicated,  their  seeds  collected  and 
saved  for  sowing  as  a  top-seed  with  grains.  One 
pound  of  each  is  stated,  for  the  purpose  of  indicating 
the  number  of  seeds  it  contains.  This  number  cannot, 
of  course,  be  strictly  accurate,  because  it  will  always 
vary  a  little,  according  to  its  cleanliness  and  freedom 
from  chaff;  but  it  is  sufficiently  so  for  practical  pur- 
poses. Only  about  five  million  seeds  are  required  for 
an  acre,  so  that  the  number  of  pounds  needed  to  seed 


214 


ON    VARIOUS    SOILS. 


thickly  and  well  can  be  easily  calculated,  taking  the 
requisite  quantities  of  each  species,  and  the  average 
number  of  seeds  to  the  pound.  The  number  of  differ- 
ent  species  taken,  including  some  of  the  larger-leaved 
or  protection  plants,  should  be  at  least  as  many  as  ten; 
the  more  the  better,  as  they  will  more  surely  form  a 
close,  thick  mass  of  green  vegetation. 

Of  the  better  grasses  suited  to  this  top-seed  manure 
culture  on  medium  soils,  might  be  mentioned  the 

Tall  Fescue,  of  about    325,000  seeds  to  the  pound. 

June  Grass,  "  3,888,000 

Meadow  Fescue,  "  420,000 

Orchard  Grass,  "  640,000 

Timothy,  "  1,100,000 

Quaking  Grass,  "  7,000,000 

Bermuda  Grass,  "  "       700,000 

Striped  Grass,  "  "       670,000 

Making  use  of  a  mixture  of  some  or  all  of  the  species 
named  above,  together  with  more  or  less  plants  of  a 
larger  and  ranker  growth,  we  might  form  a  heavy  mass 
to  turn  under  and  enrich  and  mellow  the  soil. 

Such  as  would  be  suited  to  a  heavy  clay  soil  may  be 
selected  from  the  above,  bearing  in  mind  that  the 
larger  plants  to  be  sown  with  them  should  be  such  as 
penetrate  deeply,  and  grow  with  a  rank  and  vigorous 
growth.  In  a  similar  manner  may  be  selected  mixtures 
for  light  sands,  by  a  reference  to  grasses  that  affect 
such  soils,  as  described  in  the  first  chapter. 

To  carry  out  a  complete  system  of  green  manuring, 
requires  some  little  time  in  securing  the  seeds ;  and  this 
the  farmer  must  attend  to  personally,  if  he  wishes  to 
have  them  fresh  and  good.  There  is  scarcely  any 
plant  that  grows  along  his  fields,  pastures,  and  roadsides, 
that  may  not  be  made  serviceable  as  a  green  manure,  if 
judiciously  managed,  and  sown  and  turned  under  in  the 
proper  season.  The  economy  of  green  manuring 


STUDY    OF    PLANTS.  215 

depends  upon  being  able  to  throw  in  the  vegetable 
growth  between  the  other  and  valuable  crops,  without 
the  loss  of  time  or  land.  To  adopt  it,  the  farmer  will 
need  to  observe,  and  become  familiar  with,  to  some  ex- 
tent, the  plants  on  his  farm ;  and  if  he  finds,  by  experi- 
ment, that  green  manuring  is  effective  in  giving  him 
better  crops  at  less  expense,  he  will  need  to  have  a 
seed-bed  for  many  of  the  plants  he  may  wish  to  use, 
in  order  to  be  sure  of  a  regular  and  constant  supply 
of  seed. 

It  will  be  easy  to  give  the  system  of  green  manuring 
a  fair  and  complete  experiment,  by  taking  a  small  piece, 
say  a  quarter  or  half  an  acre ;  and  for  this  purpose  the 
seeds  of  wild  plants  of  the  farm  can  be  procured,  grown, 
and  turned  in  for  wheat,  rye,  or  oats,  and  the  result 
noted. 

VII.  LITTER  GRASSES.  Many  of  the  wild  grasses 
grow  with  great  luxuriance,  and  often  in  places  very 
convenient  to  the  barn  or  the  homestead ;  and  some  of 
them,  owing  to  their  size  and  abundance  of  leaves,  are 
admirably  adapted  for  litter,  and  used  as  such  they 
greatly  increase  the  manure-heap. 

A  selection  might  be  made  of  grasses  of  this  descrip- 
tion, which  would  produce  as  valuable  a  yield  of  litter 
as  the  straw  of  some  of  our  grain  crops.  The  follow- 
ing, with  many  others,  might  be  suggested : 

Common  Reed  Grass  (Phragmites  communis). 
Lyme  Grass  (Elymus  virginicus). 
Canadian  Lyme  Grass  (Elymus  canadensis). 
Slender  Hairy  Lyme  (Elymus  striatus}. 
Reed  Canary  Grass  (Phalaris  arundinacea). 

All  of  these  grasses  have  been  described  in  chapter 
first,  and  their  natural  habitat  given  under  each. 


216  STUDY    OP    PLANTS. 

The  various  groups  given  above  are  suggested 
merely  as  examples,  and  innumerable  others  may  be 
made  to  suit  the  reader's  convenience,  and  as  one  of  the 
means  of  becoming  familiar  with  many  species  which 
are  now  everywhere  and  daily  passed  by  unnoticed  on 
the  farm.  Groups,  for  instance,  might  be  formed  of 
grasses  best  adapted  for  raising  cattle,  grasses  best 
adapted  for  raising  horses,  those  best  adapted  for  graz- 
ing sheep,  and  those  best  adapted  for  milch  cows  and 
dairy  farming. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  COMPARATIVE  NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OP  THE 
GRASSES. 

WE  have  seen  that  the  various  species  of  grass  differ 
very  materially  in  nutritive  value:  that  some  contain 
the  greatest  quantity  of  nutritive  matter  when  green  or 
in  the  flower,  others  when  the  seed  is  ripe  and  the 
plant  mature ;  that  some  yield  a  luxuriant  aftermath, 
while  others  can  scarcely  be  said  to  produce  any  at  all ; 
that  some  flourish  in  elevated  situations,  and  are  best 
suited  to  the  grazing  of  sheep,  while  others  grow  most 
luxuriantly  on  the  low  lands  and  in  the  marshes,  and  sus- 
tain the  richest  dairies ;  and  that  no  soil  is  so  sterile,  no 
plain  so  barren,  but  that  a  grass  can  be  found  adapted 
to  it. 

Some  species,  indeed,  will  not  endure  a  soil  even 
of  medium  fertility,  nor  the  application  of  any  stim- 
ulating manure,  but  cling,  with  astonishing  tenacity, 
to  the  drifting  sands,  while  others  prefer  the  heaviest 
clays,  or  revel  in  the  hot  beds  of  ammonia ;  some  are 
gregarious  in  their  habits,  requiring  to  be  sown  with 
other  species,  and,  if  sown  alone,  will  linger  along  till 
the  wild  grasses  spring  up  to  their  support ;  others  are 
solitary,  and,  if  mixed  with  different  species,  will  either 
extirpate  them,  usurping  to  themselves  the  entire  soil, 
or  die  and  disappear.  Nearly  every  species  is  distin- 
guished for  some  peculiar  quality,  and  most  are  deficient 
in  some,  comparatively  few  combining  all  the  qualities 

19  (217) 


218  HORTUS    GRAMINEUS    WOBU11NENSIS. 

desired  by  us  in  alternate  field  crops,  for  pastures,  or 
permanent  mowing,  to  such  an  extent  as  to  justify  a 
general  cultivation. 

It  is  important,  therefore,  to  learn  the  comparative 
nutritive  value  of  each  species  thought  to  be  worth 
cultivating;  and  it  is  the  object  of  this  chapter  to  throw 
some  light  upon  this  point. 

This  study  is  naturally  attended  with  great  difficulties. 
It  is  but  recently  that  accurate  researches  have  been 
made  with  a  view  of  arriving  at  such  positive  results  as 
would  be  entitled  to  full  confidence. 

In  1824,  a  very  laudable  attempt  was  made,  in  Eng- 
land, by  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  at  Woburn  Abbey,  to 
ascertain  the  comparative  value  of  most  of  the  grasses 
which  could  then  be  obtained ;  and  the  results  of  the 
experiments,  conducted  by  his  gardener,  George  Sin- 
clair, were  detailed  in  a  volume  under  the  title  of  "  Nor- 
tus  Gramineus  Woburnensis."  This  work,  which  was  the 
first  treatise  worthy  of  mention  on  this  subject,  became 
the  text-book  on  the  grasses,  and  has  been  followed,  by 
most  subsequent  writers,  down  to  the  present  time. 
But  these  experiments  must  be  regarded  as  very  unsat- 
isfactory, both  on  account  of  the  imperfections  of  the 
methods  of  arriving  at  the  results  (though  they  were 
the  best  then  known,  and  suggested  by  Sir  Humphrey 
Davy),  and  because  each  species  or  variety  was  culti- 
vated only  to  a  very  limited  extent.  The  produce  per 
acre,  for  instance,  was  calculated,  in  most  cases,  from 
the  yield  of  four  square  feet.  Besides  this,  very  great 
discrepancies  occur  in  the  volume,  which  can  with  diffi- 
culty be  accounted  for. 

The  analyses  recently  made  by  Professor  Way,  the 
distinguished  chemist  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society, 
are  more  reliable,  in  my  estimation,  than  any  which  can 
be  found,  and  no  treatise  on  the  grasses  would  be  com- 


NITROGENOUS     COMPOUNDS.  219 

plete  without  giving  the  valuable  results  to  which  he 
has  arrived. 

It  is  now  very  well  established  that  the  nutritive 
value  of  the  food  of  an  animal  depends  greatly  upon  the 
proportion  of  nitrogenous  substances  contained  in  it. 
Without  doubt,  the  sugar  which  is  found  to  be  an  ingre- 
dient of  most  vegetable  substances  at  some  periods  of 
their  growth  in  some  degree  contributes  to  it  also ; 
so  do  the  starch  and  other  ingredients  which  combine 
to  promote  heat  and  respiration;  for  no  doubt  there  is 
a  mutual  relation  existing  between  the  various  elements 
of  food,  some  going  to  sustain  and  nourish  one  part  of 
the  animal  system,  and  others  forming  some  other  part, 
equally  important  to  health  and  existence.  Each  may 
perform  its  function,  and  be  not  only  important,  but 
indispensable ;  but  chemists  have  been  accustomed  to 
base  the  nutritive  value  of  articles  of  food  chiefly  upon 
the  nitrogenous  compounds. 

The  nitrogenous  constituents  of  any  substance,  as 
grass  or  hay,  for  instance,  may  be  determined  with  little 
difficulty,  and  with  great  exactness,  since  it  has  been 
found,  by  abundant  research,  that,  when  present,  they  are 
of  nearly  the  same  constitution,  and  do  not  vary  in  their 
combinations.  The  determination  of  the  sugar  is  some- 
what more  difficult. 

The  constituents  of  plants  may  accordingly  be  divided 
into  two  classes:  one  class  embracing  all  those  sub- 
stances of  which  nitrogen  or  azote  forms  a  part,  and  the 
other  consisting  of  non-nitrogenous  bodies.  Gluten,  al- 
bumen, gelatine,  casein,  legumen,  and  fibrin,  belong  to 
the  former  class,  being  nitrogenous  substances;  while 
starch,  gum,  sugar,  woody  fibre,  mucilage,  &c.,  are  desti- 
tute of  nitrogen,  or  non-nitrogenous. 

Only  a  small  quantity  of  nitrogen  is  found  in  vege- 
table substances,  and  it  is  derived  in  part,  at  least,  from 


220  NUTRITIVE    ELEMENTS. 

the  atmosphere,  in  the  form  of  ammonia.  On  the  other 
hand,  nitrogenous  substances  form  a  large  proportion 
of  the  constituents  of  the  blood  of  animals,  and  appear 
in  their  whole  system.  As  there  is  a  constant  waste  in 
the  animal,  and  a  continual  formation  of  new  tissues, — 
as  the  whole  body  is  constantly  renewed  through  the 
agency  of  the  blood  which  is  converted  into  flesh  and 
muscle,  —  there  must  be  a  never-failing  supply  of  nour- 
ishment; and  this  nourishment  for  the  higher  animals  is 
found,  as  already  intimated,  to  a  considerable  extent,  in 
the  nitrogenous  elements  of  plants. 

For  every  ounce  of  nitrogen  which  the  animal  re- 
quires to  sustain  life,  and  build  up  the  muscular  and 
fleshy  parts  of  his  body,  he  must  take  into  the  stom- 
ach, in  the  shape  of  food,  such  a  quantity  of  vege- 
table substances  as  will  furnish  him  with  an  ounce  of 
nitrogen  in  combination  with  other  essential  elements. 
If  we  suppose  one  kind  of  hay  to  contain  one  ounce 
of  nitrogen  to  the  pound,  and  another  to  have  only 
half  as  much,  or  only  an  ounce  in  two  pounds,  the 
pound  which  contains  the  ounce  of  nitrogen  would  go 
as  far  to  nourish  the  animal  —  other  things  being  equal 
—  as  the  two  pounds  which  contain  only  the  same  quan- 
tity of  nitrogen.  The  importance  of  woody  fibre  to  act 
mechanically  in  giving  bulk  to  the  food  is  not,  of  course, 
to  be  overlooked. 

Nor  is  this  a  mere  deduction  of  theory.  The  experi- 
ment has  frequently  been  made,  and  it  is  now  fully 
established,  both  by  science  and  experience,  that  the 
greater  the  proportion  of  nitrogen  which  any  vegetable 
contains,  if  it  also  contains  other  important  constitu- 
ents in  proper  combination,  the  smaller  will  be  the  quan- 
tity of  that  vegetable  required  to  nourish  the  animal 
body,  and  the  less  nitrogen  any  vegetable  contains,  the 
greater  will  be  the  quantity  of  it  required. 

Muscle  and  flesh  are  composed  of  nitrogenous  princi- 


FAT-FORMING    SUBSTANCES.  221 

pies,  while  fat  is  made  up,  to  a  great  extent,  of  non- 
nitrogenous  matter.  Every  keeper  of  stock  knows  that 
to  feed  an  animal  on  oil-cake  alone,  for  instance,  which 
is  but  slightly  nitrogenous,  might  fatten  him,  but  it 
would  not  give  him  strength  of  muscle  or  size ;  while, 
if  the  same  animal  be  kept  on  the  cereal  grains,  as  wheat 
or  Indian  corn,  alone,  his  size  rapidly  increases,  his  mus- 
cular system  develops,  and  he  gains  flesh  without  in- 
creasing his  fat  in  proportion.  These  substances  are 
usually  given,  therefore,  as  a  part  of  the  regular  feed, 
only,  or  in  connection  with  other  and  bulkier  substances, 
as  hay.  It  was  with  reference  to  these  facts  that  Boussin- 
gault  formed  his  tables  of  nutritive  equivalents,  and 
they  agree  very  closely  with  the  results  of  practical 
observation. 

The  non-nitrogenous  substances  are  equally  necessary 
for  the  production  of  fat,  and  to  supply  the  animal 
body  with  heat ;  and  thus  they  meet  a  want  in  the  animal 
economy,  although  they  do  not,  according  to  chemical 
investigations,  contribute  so  directly  to  nourish  and 
sustain  the  system.  They  are,  therefore,  important 
in  the  analyses  of  articles  of  food,  though  not  so  essen- 
tial in  determining  merely  their  nutritive  values. 

From  what  has  been  said,  the  reader  will  very  readily 
understand  the  following  tables,  containing  the  results 
of  the  investigations  of  Professor  Way.  The  specimens 
of  the  various  grasses,  on  which  his  researches  were 
made,  were  analyzed  both  in  their  green  state  as  taken 
from  the  field,  and  after  being  dried  at  a  temperature 
of  212°  Fahr.,  a  point  at  which  the  moisture  is  found  to 
be  entirely  expelled,  and  evaporation  ceases,  and  the 
importance  of  both  determinations  must  be  obvious  on 
a  moment's  reflection. 

The  names  of  the  natural  grasses,  and  the  dates  of 
their  collection,  are  arranged  in  the  following  table : 
19* 


222 


WAY'S  INVESTIGATIONS. 


TABLE  IV.  —  NATURAL  GRASSES.    NAME  AND  DATE  OF 
COLLECTION. 


Common  Name. 

Botanic  Name. 

Date  of 

Collection. 

Character  of  the  Soil. 

Sweet-scented  Vernal,  . 
Meadow  Foxtail  Grass,  . 

Tall  Oat  Grass,  .... 
Yellow  Oat  Grass,  .  .  . 
Downy  Oat  Grass,  .  .  . 

Anthoxanthum  odoratum,    . 
Alopecurus  pratensis,    .   .   . 

Arrhenatherum  avenaceum, 
A  vena  flavescens,  
Trisetum  pubescens,  .... 
Briza  media,    

May  25, 
June  1, 

July  17, 
June  29, 
July  11, 

Calcareous  loam. 
Calcareous  -loam,  grav- 
elly subsoil. 
Forest  marble  loam. 
Forest  marble  loam. 
Dry  calcareous  loam. 

Upright  Brome,  .... 
Soft  Brome  Grass,  .  .  . 

Bromus  erectus,     

June  23, 

May  8, 

Calcareous  loam. 
Stiff  loam. 

Crested  Dog's-tail,  .  .  . 
Orchard  Grass,  .... 

Orchard  Grass,  ripe,  .  . 
Hard  Fescue  Grass,  .  . 
Meadow  Soft  Grass,  .  . 

Barley  Grass,  

Cynosurus  cristatus,  .... 
Dactylis  glomerata,    .... 

Dactylis  glomerata,    .... 
Festuca  duriuscula,   .... 
Ilnlrus  lanatus,  

June  21, 
June  13, 

July  19, 
June  13, 
June  29, 

July  11, 

Calcareous  loam. 
Calcareous    loam   on 
gravel. 
Calcareous  loam. 
Dry  calcareous  loam. 
Calcareous  loam. 
Calcareous    loam    on 

June  8 

gravel. 

Italian  Rye  Grass,  .  .  . 
Timothy  

Lolium  Italicum,     

June  13, 

Forest  marble  loam. 

May  28 

Loam,    with    gravelly 

June  Grass 

June  11, 

subsoil. 

Poa  trivialis         

June  18 

Irrigated  Meadow  Grass, 
Irrigated  Meadow  Grass 

First  crop,    

April  30, 
June  26, 

Calcareous  loam. 
Calcareous  loam. 

Annual  Rye  Grass,  .  . 

June  8, 

Calcareous  rubblyloam. 

In  the  same  manner  the  name  and  date  of  collection 
of  each  specimen  of  artificial  grass,  analyzed,  are  ar- 
ranged in  Table  V. 

The  inquiries  of  Professor  Way  were  directed  to 
ascertain 

1.  The  proportion  of  water  in  each  grass  as  taken 
from  the  field. 

2.  The    proportion  of   albuminous  or  flesh-forming 
substances,  including,  without  distinction,  all  the  nitro- 
genous principles. 

3.  The  proportion  of  oily  or  fatty  matters,  which  may 
be  called  fat-forming  principles. 


COLLECTION    OP    CLOVERS. 


223 


4.  The  proportion  of  elements  of  respiration,  or  heat- 
producing  principles,  among  which  are  included  starch, 
gum,  sugar,  pectic   acid,  &c. ;  all  the  non-nitrogenous 
substances,  indeed,   except   fatty  matters   and  woody 
fibre. 

5.  The  proportion  of  woody  fibre. 

6.  The  amount  of  mineral  matter  or  ash. 

TABLE  V.  —  ARTIFICIAL   GRASSES.     NAME,  AND   DATE 
OF  COLLECTION. 


Common  Name. 

Botanic  Name. 

Date  of 
Collection. 

Character  of  Soil. 

June  7, 

Perennial  Clover,     .   .   . 

June  4, 

Calcareous  loam. 

Crimson  Clover,    .... 
Cow  Grass,     
Cow  Grass.  2d  lot,    .   .    . 
Hop  Trefoil        .... 

Trifolium  incarnatum, 
Trifolium  medium,   .   . 
Trifolium  medium,   .   . 

June  4, 
June  7, 
June  21, 

Calcareous  loam. 
Tenacious  loam. 
Calcareous  loam. 

White  Clover,    

Trifolium  repens,      .   . 

unelS, 

Forest  loam. 

Sainfoin,     
Lucerne  or  Alfalfa       .    . 

Onobrychis  saliva,    .... 

une  8, 

Dry  loam. 

Black  Medick,  or  Nonsuch, 

Medicago  lupulina,  .... 

une6, 

Calcareous  loam. 

The  specimens  were  picked  out,  plant  by  plant,  each 
specimen  by  itself,  from  fields  in  which  they  were  grow- 
ing naturally,  or  mixed  in  the  ordinary  mode  of  cultiva- 
tion, and  were  not  raised  expressly  for  analysis. 

These  tables  of  analyses,  containing,  as  they  do,  the 
results  of  profound  investigation,  and  forming,  as  they 
do,  one  of  the  most  important  contributions  recently 
made  to  the  science  of  agriculture,  are  worthy  of  care- 
ful study,  and  will  be  found  to  be  full  of  the  most 
valuable  practical  suggestions. 

The  results  of  the  analysis  of  the  natural  grasses 
in  the  green  state,  as  taken  from  the  field,  are  arranged 
in  Table  VI.,  as  follows : 


224 


ANALYSES    OF    TRUE    GRASSES. 


TABLE  VI.  —  ANALYSIS   OF  NATURAL  GRASSES.      (100 
parts  as  taken  green  from  the  field.} 


Name  of  Grass. 

| 

i 

1 

Fatty  matten. 

|l| 

li?S2 

pi 

1 

1 

§ 

Sweet-scented  Vernal,    .   . 

80.35 

2.05 

.67 

8.54 

7.15 

1.24 

Meadow  Foxtail,      .... 

80.20 

2.44 

.52 

8.59 

6.70 

1.55 

Tall  Oat  Grass  

72.65 

3.54 

.87 

11.21 

9.37 

2.36 

Yellow  Oat  Grass,  .... 

60.40 

2.96 

1.04 

18.66 

14.22 

2.72 

Downy  Oat  Grass,  .... 

61.50 

3.07 

.92 

19.16 

13.34 

2.01 

A       lr"          P 

51.85 

2.93 

1.45 

22.60 

17.00 

4.17 

Upright  Brome  Grass,    .   . 

69.57 

3.78 

1.35 

33 

19 

2.11 

Soft  Brome  Grass,  .... 

76.62 

4.05 

.47 

9.04 

8.46 

1.36 

Crested  Dog's-tail,  .... 

62.73 

4.13 

1.32 

19.64 

9.80 

2.38 

Orchard  Grass,    

70.00 

4.06 

.94 

13.30 

10.11 

1.59 

Orchard  Grass,  seeds  ripe, 

52.57 

10.93 

.74 

12.61 

20.54 

2.61 

Hard  Fescue  Grass,     .   .    . 

69.33 

3.70 

1.02 

12.46 

11.83 

1.66 

Meadow  Soft  Grass,    .   .   . 

69.70 

3.49 

1.02 

11.92 

11.94 

1.93 

Barley  Grass   ... 

58.85 

4.59 

.94 

20.05 

13.03 

2.54 

Perennial  Rye  Grass,  .   .   . 

71.43 

3.37 

.91 

12.08 

lO.Oli 

2.15 

Italian  Rye  Grass,  .... 

75.61 

2.45 

.80 

14.11 

4.82 

2.21 

57.21 

4.86 

1.50 

22.85 

11.32 

2.26 

Annual  Spear  Grass,  .   .   . 

79.14 

2.47 

.71 

10.79 

6.30 

.59 

June  Grass   ....... 

67.14 

3.41 

.86 

14.15 

12.49 

1.95 

Rough-stalked  Meadow,     . 

73.60 

2.58 

.97 

10.54 

10.11 

2.20 

Irrigated  Meadow  Grass,   . 

87.58 

3.22 

.81 

3.98 

3.13 

1.28 

Irrigated  Meadow,  2d  crop, 

74.53 

2.78 

.52 

11.17 

8.76 

2.24 

Annual  Rye  Grass,      .   .   . 

69.00 

2.96 

.60 

12.89 

12.47 

1.99 

A  glance  at  the  first  column  of  Table  VI.  will  show  a 
striking  difference  in  the  percentage  of  water,  it  being 
as  high  as  80  in  some  instances,  while  it  falls  as  low  as 
60,  and  in  one  instance  to  51,  without  considering  the 
second  specimen  of  orchard  grass,  —  in  which  the  seed 
was  allowed  to  ripen,  when,  of  course,  the  amount  of 
water  would  be  much  less  than  at  the  period  of  flower- 
ing, —  or  the  irrigated  grasses. 


STRIKING    CONTRASTS.  225 

It  will  be  noticed  that  those  grasses  which  come 
earliest  into  flower  are  generally  the  most  succulent, 
though  this  is  not  uniformly  the  case. 

It  will  be  seen,  also,  that  the  sweet-scented  vernal 
grass  and  the  meadow  foxtail  contain  but  20  parts  in 
100  of  dry,  solid  matter,  while  the  yellow  oat  and  the 
downy  oat  grasses  contain  nearly  double,  or  about  40 
per  cent.  This  difference,  though  of  no  great  import- 
ance in  itself,  is  of  some  interest  in  showing  that,  to 
judge  of  the  quantity  of  hay  a  given  burden  of  grass 
will  produce,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  species  of 
grass  which  mainly  composes  the  meadow,  since  it  is 
evident  that  a  given  weight  of  one  variety  might  make 
double  the  quantity  of  the  same  weight  of  another. 

But  the  chief  interest  of  the  table  is  to  be  found  in 
columns  three,  four,  and  five.  The  albuminous  or  flesh- 
forming  principles  will  be  found  to  be  double  in  some 
instances  what  they  are  in  others ;  and,  in  accordance 
with  the  principles  laid  down  in  the  explanatory  re- 
marks which  precede  the  tables,  some  would  appear  to 
be  more  than  twice  as  nutritive  as  others ;  but  it  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  these  differences  depend  in  part 
on  the  variations  in  the  quantity  of  water,  and  that  the 
real  differences  will  appear  more  apparent  in  the  dried 
specimens. 

A  glance  at  Table  VII.  will  show  that  the  percentage 
of  water  in  the  artificial  grasses,  as  taken  from  the  field, 
is  greater  than  that  of  the  natural  grasses  under  the 
same  circumstances.  The  percentage  of  albuminous 
or  flesh-forming  principles  is  generally,  though  by  no 
means  uniformly,  less  than  that  of  our  best  grasses. 
Compare  red  clover,  for  instance,  with  Timothy,  and 
the  first  striking  peculiarity  is  the  difference  in  the 
amount  of  water;  in  the  one  case  exceeding  81  per 
cent,  leaving  but  19  per  cent,  of  solid  matter,  from 


226 


EXAMINATION*  OF    CLOVERS. 


which  the  flesh-forming  and  other  nutritive  substances 
must  be  drawn;  while  in  Timothy  the  water  amounts 
to  only  a  little  over  57  per  cent.,  leaving  43  per  cent,  of 
solid  substances  containing  nutritive  principles. 

This  is  an  important  difference,  to  begin  with.  The 
percentage  of  flesh-forming  principles  of  the  two  plants 
does  not,  at  first  sight,  appear  to  differ  very  materially, 
the  clover  containing  4.27,  the  Timothy  4.86  ;  but  a  lit- 
tle consideration  of  the  exceeding  value  of  this  con- 
stituent will  show  that  the  latter  has  an  important 
advantage  in  this  respect  over  the  clover.  In  fat-form- 
ing principles  the  Timothy  is  more  than  twice  as  rich 
as  clover;  while  in  heat-producing  principles — also  very 
valuable  —  Timothy  far  surpasses  clover,  the  one  pro- 
ducing 22.85  per  cent.,  and  the  other  only  8.45  per  cent. 
Of  waste  and  useless  matter  in  the  shape  of  woody  fibre 
Timothy  contains  the  largest  per  cent.,  while  the  larger 
quantity  of  mineral  matter  shows  it  also  to  be  a  greater 
exhauster  of  the  soil.  The  most  valuable  practical  de- 

TABLE  VII.  —  ANALYSIS  OF  ARTIFICIAL  GRASSES. 
(100  parts,  as  taken  from  the  field.} 


Name  of  Plant. 

1 

Albuminous  or 
flesh  -forming 
principle.. 

Fatty  matter.. 

Ileut-producing 
principle!.  " 
•lurch,  gum, 
•  ugar,  etc. 

Woody  fibre. 

Mineral  matter, 

Red  Clover           .   .    . 

81  01 

4.27 

.69 

845 

3  76 

1  89 

Perennial  Clover,     .... 

81.05 
82  14 

3.64 
2  96 

.78 
67 

8.04 
6  70 

4.91 
5  78 

1.68 
1  75 

Cow  Grass    .   .   . 

74  10 

6.30 

.92 

9  42 

6  25 

801 

Cow  Gross,  2d  specimen,    . 
Hop  Trefoil,     

77.57 
8348 

4.22 

3.39 

1.07 

.77 

11.14 

7  25 

4.23 
3  74 

1.77 
1  37 

White  Clover               . 

7fl  71 

8.80 

.89 

8  14 

6  38 

2  08 

82.00 

4.04 

.62 

6  75 

4  68 

1  11 

Sainfoin 

76  64 

4  32 

70 

10  73 

5  77 

1  84 

Lucerne,  or  Alfalfa,    .    .   . 
Black  Medick,  or  Nonsuch, 

69.95 
76.80 

3.83 
6.70 

.02 
.94 

13.62 
7.73 

8.74 
6.32 

3.04 
2.51 

EXAMINATION    OF    GRASSES. 


227 


ductions  of  a  similar  nature  may  be  made  by  comparing 
these  tables. 


TABLE  VIII.  —  ANALYSIS  OF  NATURAL  GRASSES. 
parts  of  the  grass  dried  at  212°  Fahr.) 


(100 


Name  of  Grass. 

Albuminous  or 
flesh-forming 
principles. 

Fatty  matters. 

Unit-producing 
principle*,— 

starch,  sugar, 
gum,  Ac. 

Woody  fibre. 

Mineral  matter, 
or  ash. 

Sweet-scented  Vernal  Grass,   . 

10.43 
12.32 

3.41 
2.92 

43.48 
4312 

36.36 

33.83 

6.32 

7.81 

Tall  Oat  Grass      

12.95 

3.19 

38.03 

34.24 

11.59 

Yellow  Oat  Grass 

748 

261 

47  08 

35  95 

6  88 

797 

239 

49.78 

3464 

522 

608 

3.01 

46.95 

35.30 

866 

Upright  Brome  Grass,  .... 

9.44 
17  29 

3.33 
211 

82 
38  66 

02 
36  12 

6.21 

5  82 

Crested  Do^'s-tail     .       .   . 

11  08 

3  54 

5264 

26  36 

6  38 

13  53 

814 

44  32 

33-70 

531 

Orchard  Grass,  seeds  ripe,  .   . 
Hard  Fescue  Grass,  

23.08 
12  10 

1.66 
3.34 

26.53 
40.43 

43.32 
38.71 

6.61 
5.42 

11  52 

3  66 

39  25 

39  30 

6  37 

Meadow  Barley  Grass,     .   .   . 

11.17 

11.85 

2.30 
8.17 

46.68 
42.24 

31.67 
3520 

6.18 
7.64 

10  10 

3  27 

57  82 

19  76 

905 

Timothy      

11.36 

8.55 

53.35 

26.46 

5.28 

11.83 

3.42 

61.70 

30.22 

2.83 

10.35 

2.63 

43.06 

38.02 

5.94 

Rough-stalked  Meadow,   .   .   . 
Irrigated  Meadow  Grass,  .    .    . 
Irrigated  Meadow  (2d  crop),  . 

9.80 
25.91 
10.92 

8.67 
6.53 
2.06 

40.17 
32.05 
43.90 

38.03 
25.14 
34.30 

8.33 
10.37 
8.82 

In  the  case  of  orchard  grass  and  the  irrigated  meadow, 
in  Table  VIII.,  the  seeds  were  ripened,  and  they  should 
not,  therefore,  be  compared  with  other  grasses  taken  in 
the  blossom,  without  considering  this  fact.  It  will  be 
seen,  too,  that  the  specimens  analyzed  were  in  the  dry 
state,  much  drier  than  they  could  be  made  by  the  ordi- 
nary process  of  hay-making ;  for,  however  perfectly  the 
hay  is  cured,  it  will  still  contain  a  very  considerable  per- 


228 


THE    CLOVEfiS    ANALYZED. 


centage  of  water,  and,  if  artificially  dried,  as  in  the 
trials  given  above,  and  then  exposed  to  the  air,  it  will 
absorb  from  10  to  15  per  cent,  of  water,  showing  that 
no  hay  is  absolutely  dry  by  any  ordinary  processes.  In 
England,  the  percentage  of  water  in  well-made  hay  is 
about  16,  and  hay  artificially  dried  will  absorb  that 
amount,  if  exposed  again  to  the  air.  I  do  not  think  the 
percentage  here  would  be  so  large,  for  obvious  reasons. 
In  the  analysis  of  the  hay  of  the  reed  canary  grass, 
made  by  Professor  Horsford,  and  given  on  a  preceding 
page,  the  percentage  was  but  10.24.  That  was  a  well- 
cured  specimen,  taken  after  it  had  passed  the  period  of 
blossoming,  and  the  amount  of  water  is,  perhaps,  slightly 
below  the  average. 

It  will  be  seen  that  a  great  difference  exists  in  the 
valuable  constituents  of  the  grasses. 

Lowest.  Highest.  Average. 

Flesh-forming  principles,  ....    6.08  17.29  11.68 

Fat-producing  principles,  .   .   .   .    2.11  3.67  2.89 

Heat-giving  principles, 38.03  57.82  47.92 

TABLE  IX.  —  ANALYSIS   OF  ARTIFICIAL   GRASSES.     (In 
100  parts  of  the  grass  dried  at  212°  Fahr.) 


Name  of  Plant 

Ott 

IS 

Fntty  matters. 

Hent-prodiicing 
principle,,-" 
Btnrch,  sugar, 
gum,  etc. 

I 

It 

Is 

Red  Clover,    

22.65 

3.67 

44.47 

19.75 

9.56 

19.18 

4.09 

42.42 

25.96 

8.35 

Crimson  Clover,     
Cow  Grass      

16.60 
24.33 

3.73 
8.57 

37.60 
36.36 

32.39 
24.14 

9.78 
11.60 

Cow  Grass,  2d  specimen,  .    .    . 
Hop  Trefoil     

18.77 
20.48 

4.77 
4.67 

49.65 
43.86 

18.84 
22.66 

7.97 
8.33 

1876 

4  38 

4004 

26.53 

10.29 

2361 

8.06 

3945 

27.38 

6.60 

18.45 

3.01 

4596 

24.71 

7.87 

12  76 

2  76 

40  16 

34  21 

1011 

Black  Medick. 

24.60 

4.06 

33.31 

27.19 

10.84 

PEACTICAL    VALUE    OF    A    GRASS.  229 

A  glance  at  this  table  will  show  that  the  different 
principles  in  the  artificial  grasses  vary,  to  a  great 
extent,  as  follows : 

Lowest.  Highest.  Average. 

Flesh-forming  principles 12.76  24.60  18.68 

Fat-producing  principles, .    .   .   .    2.76  4.77  3.76 

Heat-giving  principles, 33.31  49.65  41.48 

The  difference  in  composition  exhibited  in  the  natural 
grasses  of  Table  VIII.  is  very  marked,  and  of  course 
the  value  of  the  grasses  as  compared  with  each  other 
must  vary  greatly.  Still,  the  practical  value  of  a  grass 
depends  somewhat  upon  circumstances  which  cannot 
be  analyzed,  such  as  the  period  at  which  it  arrives  at 
maturity,  and  the  particular  soil  and  location  of  the 
farmer.  It  might  happen  that  a  grass,  not  in  itself  so 
rich  in  nutritive  qualities  as  another,  would  be  preferred, 
on  account  of  its  coming  to  maturity  just  at  the  time 
when  the  farmer  most  needed  it.  But  this  table  shows 
the  comparative  nutritive  qualities  of  the  grasses,  since 
all  the  specimens  were  collected  and  investigated  in  the 
same  manner,  at  the  same  period  of  growth,  —  or  as 
nearly  as  possible,  —  when  in  the  flower,  so  that,  what- 
•ever  sources  of  error  might  exist  to  modify  the  results, 
they  would  naturally  apply  to  all  alike. 

The  grasses  from  the  irrigated  meadow  consisted 
principally  of  June,  or  Kentucky  blue  grass,  rough- 
stalked  meadow  grass,  perennial  rye  grass,  meadow  soft 
grass,  barley  grass,  meadow  oat  grass,  and  a  few  other 
species ;  and  it  will  be  noticed  that  in  combination  they 
abound  in  flesh  and  fat  forming  principles  to  a  greater 
extent  than  we  should  be  led  to  suppose  from  the 
composition  of  any  one  of  them  alone. 

Our  cultivated  Timothy  compares  very  favorably  with 
the  other  grasses,  containing  a  less  percentage  of  use- 
less matter,  as  woody  fibre,  than  any  other,  except  Ital- 
20 


230  COMPOSITION    OF    TIMOTHY. 

ian  rye  grass  and  crested  dog's-tail,  a  grass  not  com- 
mon with  us,  and  the  irrigated  grasses.  In  point  of 
soluble,  heat-producing  principles,  sugar,  gum,  and 
starch,  it  is  surpassed  by  the  Italian  rye  grass,  but  by 
no  others.  The  analyses  of  this  grass  in  its  green  and 
dry  states  in  Tables  VI.  and  VIII.  fully  justify  the  prefer- 
ence which  we  have  long  shown  for  the  use  of  Timo- 
thy ;  for,  as  taken  from  the  field  at  the  time  of  blossom- 
ing, it  will  be  found  to  contain  less  water,  a  greater 
percentage  of  flesh  and  fat  forming  principles,  and  less 
useless  matter  in  the  shape  of  woody  fibre,  than  most 
of  the  other  grasses.  The  deductions  of  science  cer- 
tainly correspond,  in  this  case,  with  the  results  of 
practice. 

A  comparison  of  Tables  VI.  and  VIII.  with  Tables 
VII.  and  IX.  will  show  the  comparative  advantages  of 
the  use  of  the  artificial  grasses,  in  point  of  albuminous 
or  flesh-forming  principles,  and  fatty  matters.  The  car- 
bonaceous or  heat-producing  principles  remain  nearly 
the  same  throughout,  while  the  percentage  of  waste 
matter  or  woody  fibre  is  less  than  in  the  natural  grasses. 
This  is  an  important  fact,  worthy  of  the  careful  consid- 
eration of  the  farmer. 

In  the  sixth  column  of  Table  VIII.  will  be  found  the 
percentage  of  ash  of  each  of  the  grasses  analyzed. 
Table  X.  contains  a  still  further  analysis  of  this  ash, 
which  gives  all  the  inorganic  constituents  which  the 
plant  derives  from  the  soil  and  the  manures  furnished 
to  it.  It  is  important  and  suggestive  to  one  who  will 
examine  it  carefully,  as  indicating  the  kind  of  manure 
which  in  many  cases  it  may  be  desirable  to  apply,  while 
it  will  throw  still  further  light  upon  the  practical  and 
comparative  values  of  each  species  which  the  farmer 
proposes  to  cultivate,  by  showing  the  extent  to  which 
it  will  be  likely  to  exhaust  the  soil. 


SUBSTANCES    TAKEN    FROM    THE    SOIL.         231 

TABLE  X.  —  ANALYSIS   OP  THE   ASH   OF  SOME   OF  THE 
NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICAL  GRASSES. 


Common  Name. 


Meadow  Foxtail,  .  . 
Sweet-scented  Vernal, 
Downy  Oat  Grass,  . 
Upright  Brome  Orass, 
Soft  Brome  Grass,  . 
Crested  Dog's-tail,  . 

Orchard  Grass, 

Orchard  Grass,  with  seeds 

ripe, 

Hard  Fescue  Grass,  .  . 
Meadow  Soft  Grass,  .  .  . 
Meadow  Barley  Grass,  . 
Perennial  Rye  Grass,  .  . 
Annual  Spear  Grass,  .  . 

June  Grass, 

Rough-stalked  Meadow 

Grass,  .   .    - 

Timothy, 

Annual  Rye  Grass,  .  .  . 
Yellow  Oat  Grass,  .  .  . 

Red  Clover, 

White  Clover, 

Sainfoin  in  flower,  .  .  . 
Sainfoin  in  seed,  .... 
Italian  Rye  Grass  In  flower 
Italian  Rye  Grass  in  seed, 


7-81  38.75J  6.25  2.16 
6.32  28.36  10.09  3.39 
5.22  36.23'l0.82  3.37 


5.21  38.48 


.    le  38  40.11 


I 

i5.5l32.18 


7.53    5.4 


9.62,  4.91    9.07 


.65    3.901.28    .4737.03 

1.26    9.212.531.1832.03 

-     4.723.17:  .7231.21 

.55!l0.384.99    .2620.33 


8.601  3 


6.41    3.96    2.88 


6.642.60    .2830.09    .33 


10162.43    .1824.99J 
2.09    5.822.22!  .69  29  52j 


9.50  - 
7.03  4.90 
405J5.6C 
10.631 1.38 
-  3.11 


-  11  60j      - 
-!  17. 86  3.09 


8.143.47    .2333.06      -4.874.76 


5.42  28.53  12.07)  3.45 
6.37  28.31  8.02  4.41 
5.6756.23!  6.04J  429 

.5427.13  8.73  520 
2.83J16.03  9.11 10.18] 
5.94I32.931 10.02  4.26 


S.33'37.50    9J3 

5.2931.0911.29 
6.4541.7910.07 
5.28'35.20  9.31 
9.66  .59 1  6.71 
3.68  11.53 
3.22'  9.35 
6.50|  3.49J  7.97 
6.9759.181  634 
6.4060.62  6.32 


6.37 


•4.47 


1.3810.312.83    .7831.84] 
1.82    8.313.41;  .31!34.83< 

5.042.42;  .66'20.263. 

9.642.85J  .21J24.67I      - 
3.29  11.69  2.44  1  57  41 
.40!  5.63!2.7l|  .28;31.17 


817 


4.02 14  94J5.30  .27i24  25!  - 
3.45  -  !  6.8212.69!  .28J28  99  .87 
4.00  -  7.98!3.07  2  40i36.06  .73 


.62 


3.91  6.66 
1.66 
13.80  7.25 
.473.35 
11  25  1  31 

6.90 '      - 

.7o'3.24 

-  1 5.11 

-  il.25 


7.21  18.03  26.41  8.15  1  96  14.33  3.72  - 
3.28  15.20  24.30  5.03  61J31.90  -6.24 
.2ffl  - 


2.33  17.  36  29  67  4.  59    . 


t>.95|2.23    .78  12.45  3.98J      - 
!l2.292.64    .3o'l0.77    .131      - 


A  careful  examination  of  the  analyses  of  the  ash,  or 
the  inorganic  constituents  of  the  grasses,  will  reveal 
the  fact  that  some  important  substances  are  taken  from 
the  soil  in  large  quantities,  and  if  the  grass  is  removed 
in  the  form  of  hay,  that  these  must  in  some  way  be 
restored  in  manure,  or  exhaustion  will  follow.  Among 
these  are  large  percentages  of  silica,  which  is  taken  up 
in  solution  with  water.  Phosphoric  acid  is  removed  in 
large  quantities,  generally  found  in  combination  with 


232  EXHAUSTION  '*OF    THE    SOIL. 

lime,  magnesia  or  iron.  The  amount  of  potash  is  also 
very  large,  and  it  is  found  in  combination  with  silicic 
acid. 

Take  the  most  careful  analyses  of  the  grasses  as  the 
basis  of  calculation,  and  it  will  appear  that  the  weight  of 
silicates,  phosphates,  and  potash,  removed  from  the 
soil  in  every  ton  of  hay,  is  not  less  than  one  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds.  Supposing,  then,  that  the  crop  of 
hay  averages  two  tons  to  the  acre,  —  and  it  will  rarely 
fall  below  this  on  good  soils  and  under  fair  cultivation, 
—  and  it  appears  that  about  three  hundred  pounds  of 
these  valuable  substances  are  abstracted  from  the  soil 
of  every  acre  so  cropped,  and  this  course  of  culture 
could  not  long  continue  without  the  return  of  these 
constituents  to  the  soil.  And  hence  the  manures  re- 
quired for  these  lands  are  such  as  contain  these  sub- 
stances, such  as  ashes,  lime,  and  other  applications  rich 
in  silicates,  phosphates,  and  potash. 

Lime  is  found  in  much  less  quantities  than  potash  in 
most  of  the  grasses,  but  the  relative  proportions  differ 
in  different  species.  In  orchard  grass,  for  instance,  the 
lime  amounts  to  only  5.82  per  cent.,  while  the  amount 
of  potash  is  29.52.  But  in  Timothy  the  lime  amounts 
to  nearly  15  per  cent.,  and  the  potash  to  over  24.  Soda 
is  found  in  considerable  quantities  in  some  species,  and 
is  wanting  in  most. 

No  one  of  the  grasses  appears  to  be  better  adapted 
to  supply  the  wants  of  animals  than  Timothy.  Its 
amount  of  phosphates  is  larger  than  that  of  any  other. 

The  amount  of  water  in  the  stem  is  greater  than  in 
the  leaf,  so  that  the  percentage  of  nutriment  is  greater 
in  the  leaf  and  flower  stalk  or  panicle  than  in  the  stem. 
It  has  been  found,  by  actual  and  often  repeated  experi- 
ments, that  grass  loses  more  than  half  of  its  weight  of 
water  in  curing;  and  it  never  becomes  so  dry,  by  any 


COMPOSITION     OP    SEDGES.  233 

of  the  ordinary  modes  of  curing,  as  to  lose  all  its  water. 
It  has  already  been  remarked  that  the  average  percent- 
age of  water  found  in  well-cured  hay,  in  England,  is 
about  sixteen,  and  in  this  country  from  ten  to  four- 
teen per  cent,  of  water  will  always  be  found  in  sun- 
dried  hay. 

The  water  or  aquatic  grasses,  and  the  swamp  sedges, 
contain  a  much  larger  percentage  of  water  than  the 
upland  grasses,  while  their  amount  of  ash,  or  inorganic 
constituents,  is  proportionally  small.  They  are  not, 
therefore,  valuable  for  fodder,  though,  as  I  have  said, 
they  are  often  eaten,  especially  in  spring,  or  when  they 
are  succulent  and  tender. 

The  following  analysis,  by  Salisbury,  of  the  soft  rush 
(Juncus  effusus],  will  serve  as  an  example  of  the  com- 
position of  many  of  this  class  of  plants.  The  stalk,  cut 
in  a  swamp  on  the  22d  of  June,  weighed  46  grains.  It 
contained 

46.586  per  cent,  of  water  ; 

63.414     "      «  "  dry  matter  ; 

0.978     "      "  "  ash ; 

1.831     "      "  "  ash  calculated  dry  ; 

while  the  organic  matter  calculated  dry  amounted  to 
98.169.  The  proportion  of  inorganic  matter,  it  will  be 
seen,  was  very  small. 

The  slender  club-rush  (Eleocharis  tennis]  shows  a 
somewhat  similar  composition.  It  was  cut  in  blossom, 
and  had  of 

Water,  38.241. 

Dry  matter,  61.759. 

Ash,  2.663. 

The  ash  calculated  dry  was  found  to  be  4.312  per 
cent.,  and  the  organic  matter  calculated  dry  to  be 
95.688  per  cent. 

A  comparison  of  the  analyses  of  the  ash  of  the  nat- 
ural and  artificial  grasses  will  reveal  the  fact  that  the 
20* 


234 


LIME-PlANTS. 


latter  contain  a  very  much  larger  amount  of  lime  and 
potash  than  the  former,  and  for  this  reason  they  have 
very  properly  been  denominated  lime-plants.  It  will 
be  seen  also,  from  their  composition,  that  phosphoric 
acid  forms  an  important  ingredient  in  them,  while  the 
silica  is  very  small,  comparatively.  The  removal  of  a 
clover  crop,  therefore,  without  applying  suitable  ma- 
nures, will  exhaust  the  soil  quite  as  much  as  a  crop  of 
the  cultivated  grasses,  though  of  different  constituents. 
A  soil,  to  bear  good  clover  crops,  requires  a  considera- 
ble ingrediejit  of  lime,  potash,  and  phosphates,  and  with- 
out the  application  of  these  manures  in  some  form  or 
other  they  will  inevitably  run  out.  Plaster  of  Paris, 
lime,  and  ashes  leached  and  unleached,  applied  to  clover 
soils,  are  always  followed  with  good  effects. 

TABLE  XI.  —  ANALYSIS   OF   SPECIMENS   OF  WEEDS,  AS 

TAKEN   FROM   THE    FIELD,   AND   WHEN   DRIED. 


1 

. 

| 

l| 

| 

Name  of  Plant 

1 

1 

•p| 

1 

4 

"5 
1 

p 

3* 

! 

I* 

C 

I 

q 

Ox-eye  Daisy  (Crysanthemum  leucan- 

June  23, 

71.85 

2.12 

.999 

12.64 

10.51 

1.86 

Yellow  Buttercup  (Ranunculus  acris), 

June  13, 

88.15 

1.18 

.507 

6.26 

3.00 

.91 

Sorrel  (Rum  ex  acetosa)  

July  4, 

75.37 

1.90 

545 

7,62 

13.04 

1.51 

DRIED  SPECIMENS  OF  THE  SAME. 

7.53 

3.49 

45  02  37.33 

6.63 

9  98 

4.28 

52  69  25  34 

7  71 

Sorrel.     . 

7.71 

219 

46.82  37  16 

6,1? 

If  now  we  cast  our  eye  at  the  analyses  of  some  of 
our  common  weeds,  we  shall  see  how  far  superior  the 
cultivated  grasses  are  in  nitrogenous  or  nutritive  prin- 
ciples. 

The  albuminous  principles  are  very  much  less  than 
in  either  the  natural  or  the  artificial  grasses. 


NUTRITIVE    EQUIVALENTS.  235 

A  line  of  investigation,  both  scientific  and  practical, 
equally  interesting  and  valuable  with  the  foregoing, 
would  lead  into  the  comparative  nutritive  equivalents 
of  hay  and  other  feeding  substances.  This  is  not  the 
place  to  discuss  that  subject  in  full,  the  line  of  our  pres- 
ent inquiry  embracing  only  the  comparative  nutritive 
i  values  of  the  grasses  themselves.  For  convenience  of 
reference,  however,  I  subjoin  the  following  Table  (XII.), 
embracing  the  results  of  the  profoundest  researches  of 
many  distinguished  chemists  and  practical  men,  both  in 
the  laboratory  and  the  barn.  Boussingault  and  others,  in 
France,  and  Fresenius,  Thaer,  and  others,  in  Germany, 
have  devoted  to  these  and  similar  investigations  the 
best  part  of  their  lives.  . 

It  is  necessary  to  remark  that  tables  of  nutritive 
equivalents  are  liable  to  imperfections,  on  account  of 
sources  of  error  which  must  exist  in  the  nature  of 
things,  as  difference  of  soil,  climate,  season,  imperfec- 
tion of  methods  of  analyses,  <fec. ;  but,  making  all  allow- 
ance for  these,  and  admitting  that  the  table  cannot  be 
absolutely  and  literally  correct  or  perfect,  it  possesses 
great  practical  value  and  interest,  as  giving  a  good  gen- 
eral idea  of  the  relative  value  for  feeding  purposes  of 
various  agricultural  products. 

In  regard  to  the  nutritive  value,  as  based  on  the 
amount  of  nitrogen  or  nitrogenous  compounds,  it  may 
be  remarked  that  the  latest  and  most  careful  experi- 
ments, conducted  by  most  experienced  and  competent 
experimenters,  tend  to  show  that  this  basis  is  correct, 
so  far  as  it  can  be  applied  to  substances  so  analogous 
in  composition  that  they  can  be  included  in  one  group ; 
as,  for  example,  the  different  root  crops  possess  a  nutri- 
tive value  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  nitrogen  they 
contain,  but  the  nutritive  value  of  a  root  ought  not 
to  be  compared  with  a  succulent  plant,  like  clover, 


236 


TABLE    OF    EQUIVALENTS. 


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POSSIBLE    SOURCE    OF    ERROR.  237 

for  instance,  by  the  proportion  of  nitrogen  in  each, 
merely,  without  taking  into  consideration  other  prop- 
erties. In  other  words,  roots  may  be  compared  with 
each  other  on  that  basis  merely,  and  grasses  with  each 
other,  and  leguminous  plants  with  each  other,  but  not 
root  crops  and  grasses.  This  fact  is  alluded  to  as  a 
possible  source  of  error  in  some  of  the  earlier  researches 
of  Boussingault,  and  not  as  materially  affecting  the  prac- 
tical value  of  the  table. 

The  mode  of  using  Table  XII.  is  very  simple.  Good 
upland  meadow  hay  —  or  what  would  be  called  in  New 
England  good  English  hay  —  is  taken  as  a  standard  of 
comparison.  Now,  if  we  wished  to  produce  the  same 
results  with  carrots  as  with  one  hundred  pounds  of 
good,  average  English  hay,  we  must  use,  according  to 
Boussingault's  column  of  equivalents,  382  pounds  of 
carrots,  or  for  each  pound  of  hay  3.82  pounds  of  car- 
rots ;  and,  according  to  the  practical  experiments  men- 
tioned, 366  pounds,  250  pounds,  225  pounds,  300  pounds, 
and  so  on,  to  each  100  pounds  of  hay. 

According  to  the  theoretical  values  of  Boussingault, 
100  pounds  of  hay  are  equal  in  feeding  qualities  to  65 
pounds  of  barley,  60  pounds  of  oats,  58  pounds  of  rye, 
or  55  pounds  of  wheat.  While,  according  to  the  exper- 
iments of  Thaer,  100  pounds  of  hay  produced  the  same 
effect  as  76  pounds  of  barley,  86  pounds  of  oats,  71 
pounds  of  rye,  64  pounds  of  wheat. 

With  regard  to  the  analyses  of  Tables  VI.,  VII.,  VIII., 
and  IX.,  some  slight  allowance  should  perhaps  be  made 
for  difference  of  climate,  since  it  is  well  known  that 
grasses,  as  well  as  other  plants,  grown  rapidly  in  a  hot 
sun,  which  we  usually  have  in  the  months  of  May,  June, 
and  July,  contain  a  much  larger  amount  of  nutritive  and 
saccharine  matter  than  those  grown  slower,  and  in  a 
greater  amount  of  available  moisture  both  in  the  atmos- 


238  EFFECT    OF"  CLIMATE. 

phere  and  the  soil,  which  is  ordinarily  present  in  the 
climate  of  England.  Every  observing  farmer  knows 
that  grasses  grown  on  our  low,  reclaimed  swamp  lands, 
for  instance,  make  less  milk,  and  less  flesh  and  fat  in 
animals,  than  the  same  species  grown  on  our  dry,  up- 
land soils.  The  same  difference  must  exist,  to  some 
extent,  between  our  grasses  and  the  grasses  grown  in 
a  comparatively  moist  climate,  where  they  have  the 
advantage  of  more  frequent  rains,  which  push  them  to 
a  more  complete  development  and  give  them  greater 
luxuriance,  increasing,  of  course,  the  quantity  of  their 
produce,  while  their  quality  cannot  be  improved  in  the 
points  alluded  to. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

THE    CLIMATE    AND     SEASONS,    AND    THEIR     INFLU-  ' 

ENCE    ON    THE    GRASSES. 

WE  now  come  to  consider  the  influence  of  climate 
upon  the  quantity  and  nutritive  quality  of  the  grasses. 

No  crop  is  more  dependent  on  the  seasons  than  the 
grasses.  Every  farmer  knows  that  a  moist  spring,  with 
rains  evenly  distributed  over  the  months  of  April,  May, 
and  June,  will  insure  him  the  most  luxuriant  crops  of 
grass  and  hay ;  and  he  knows,  also,  that  a  dry,  cold 
spring  is  fatal  to  their  rapid  and  healthy  development, 
and  that  he  must,  in  such  a  spring,  expect  a  compara- 
tively small  crop.  These  and  many  similar  facts  are 
familiar  to  every  one. 

It  has  also  been  found  by  observation  that  the  grasses 
will  vegetate  when  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  above 
the  freezing  point  of  water  (32°  Fahrenheit),  provided 
the  temperature  of  the  soil  ranges  from  35°  to  40°, 
while  a  lower  temperature  checks  their  growth.  Vege- 
tation, at  temperatures  higher  than  these,  depends  much 
on  the  amount  of  moisture  and  heat,  both  of  the  soil  and 
the  atmosphere. 

Grass  will  not  vegetate  when  the  temperature  of 
the  air  is  higher  than  66°,  unless  the  soil  is  very  moist. 
When  the  vapor  of  the  air  is  at  its  maximum,  or  when 
the  air  is  saturated  with  moisture,  vegetation  advances 
with  the  greatest  rapidity  ;  and  this  most  frequently 
happens  with  us  in  the  earlier  growing  months,  April, 
May,  and  June.  But  when  the  moisture  in  the  atmos- 

(239) 


240  CONDITIONS  'OF    GROWTH. 

phere  is  slight,  and  the  soil  becomes  dry,  and  the  sub- 
soil is  porous,  the  turf  of  our  fields  and  pastures  suffers 
from  drought,  and  scarcely  a  year  passes  over  us  when 
this  does  not  happen. 

A  writer  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society,  after  many  careful  observations,  comes  to  the 
conclusion,  First,  That  the  growth  of  grass  is  always 
proportionate  to  the  heat  of  the  air,  if  a  sufficiency  of 
moisture  be  present  in  the  atmosphere.  Second,  That 
in  the  climate  of  England  the  moisture  present  is  rarely 
sufficient  to  allow  the  temperature  to  have  full  effect 
when  that  temperature  exceeds  56° ;  but  that,  if  moisture 
be  artificially  supplied,  as  by  irrigation,  to  catch-water 
meadows,  that  then  vegetation  will  still  proceed  in  pro- 
portion to  the  heat.  Third,  That  when  the  temperature 
of  the  air  is  between  36°  and  41°,  the  grass  will  only 
vegetate  with  a  fifth  part  of  the  force  that  it  will  when 
the  temperature  is  56°.  Thus  the  land  that  will  keep 
ten  sheep  per  acre,  in  the  latter  case,  will  only  keep  two 
in  the  former.  That  from  41°  to  46°  its  growth  is  two- 
fifths,  or  double  that  of  its  growth  when  the  tempera- 
ture is  under  41°,  and  it  will  then  keep  four  sheep 
instead  of  two.  Again,  from  46°  to  50°,  its  growth  will 
rise  to  seven-tenths,  or  it  will  keep  on  the  same  ground 
from  five  to  seven  sheep ;  and  from  50°  to  56°,  it  gene- 
rally—  unless  assisted  by  an  artificial  addition  of  moist- 
ure—  arrives  at  its  maximum;  but  if  the  month  of 
June  be  very  moist,  it  will  continue  to  grow  with  an 
increase  of  force  up  to  60°. 

Our  climate  is  very  different  from  that  of  England. 
The  evaporation  from  the  soil  is  ordinarily  very  much 
more  rapid,  and  the  actual  amount  of  moisture  in  the 
air  is  greater,  since  it  is  well  established  that  the  evap- 
oration is  in  proportion  to  the  height  of  the  tempera- 
ture and  the  extent  of  water  or  land  surface ;  that  in 


MOISTUEE    AND     DBYNESS.  241 

the  temperate  zones  it  amounts  to  about  thirty-seven 
inches  a  year,  while  in  the  tropics  it  rises  to  from 
ninety  to  one  hundred  inches,  and  that  the  atmosphere 
when  at  the  freezing  point  contains  about  a  two-hun- 
dredth part  of  its  weight  of  water,  while  at  52°  it  con- 
tains a  hundredth  part,  or  twice  as  much ;  at  74°,  a  fif- 
tieth part,  or  four  times  as  much,  and  at  98°,  a  twenty- 
fifth  part,  or  eight  times  as  much,  and  so  on  in  that 
ratio. 

Now,  although  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  the 
two  countries  is  about  t]ie  same,  —  it  being  near  London 
about  48°  5',  and  at  Boston  48°  9',  —  yet  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  growing  months  of  the  two  countries  pre- 
sents a  marked  difference,  the  mean  temperature  of 
every  one  being  with  us  much  higher.  But  the  climate 
of  England  is  proverbially  moist,  notwithstanding  that 
the  mean  annual  fall  of  rain  near  London  is  only  little 
over  twenty-five  inches,  while  the  quantity  which  falls 
at  Boston  is  over  forty-two  inches ;  at  Charleston,  S. 
C.,  over  forty-five  inches ;  at  Savannah,  in  Georgia, 
over  fifty-three  inches,  and  at  Mobile,  Alabama,  over 
sixty  inches. 

The  amount  of  sensible  moisture  of  the  atmosphere 
is  greater  in  England  than  here,  though  the  actual 
amount  existing  in  our  atmosphere  must  exceed  that  of 
the  atmosphere  even  in  the  eastern  part  of  England. 
Our  soil  is  consequently  drier,  and  unless  we  have 
frequent  rains  vegetation  suffers  sooner,  and  the  growth 
of  grass  is  liable  to  be  checked  for  the  want  of  moist- 
ure, and  this  actually  happens  more  or  less  nearly  every 
year. 

It  is  plain  that  the   differences  in  climate  that  influ- 

enca-and  control  the  growth  of  the  grasses  are  chiefly 

moisture  and  dryness.     Moisture  must  exist  either  in 

the  soil  or  the  atmosphere.     It  is  also  clear  that  a  lux 

21 


242  INFLUENCE    OF    RAINS. 

uriiint  growth  of  grass  depends  not  so  much  upon  the 
aggregate  annual  quantity  of  rain  that  falls  as  upon  its 
distribution  over  the  year,  and  especially  over  the 
growing  months.  A  frequent  rain  in  spring,  though  it 
may  come  in  small  quantities,  causes  a  rapid  and  suc- 
culent growth ;  but  it  may  be  laid  down  as  a  well-fixed 
principle,  that  the  grass  crop  is  better  from  large 
quantities  of  rain  falling  at  once  and  at  longer  inter- 
vals,—  provided  it  does  not  come  in  torrents  to  pros- 
trate the  crop,  and  that  the  intervals  are  not  so  long  as 
to  produce  droughts,  which  are  always  attended  with 
deleterious  effects,  —  than  from  smaller  quantities  fall- 
ing with  greater  frequency.  The  quantity  in  the  latter 
case  will  not  ordinarily  be  so  great  as  in  the  former, 
but  it  is  more  than  compensated,  it  is  thought,  by  the 
increased  value.  The  fact  that  grasses  grown  in  a  dry 
season  possess  greater  nutritive  and  fattening  qualities 
is  well  known  to  every  practical  farmer. 

So  great  is  the  dependence  of  the  grasses  upon  heat 
and  moisture  combined,  that,  knowing  the  results  of 
observations  of  the  thermometer  and  the  rain-gauge  in 
any  section,  during  the  three  growing  months  of  April, 
May,  and  June,  one  might  predict  with  great  certainty 
the  results  of  the  harvest  in  that  section  ;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  yield  of  grass  and  hay,  as  stated  by 
practical  farmers  in  different  sections  of  the  country, 
would  indicate  so  clearly  and  uniformly  the  excess 
above  the  average,  or  the  partial  failure  of  the  crop, 
that  a  meteorological  map  of  that  section  might  be  con- 
structed from  their  statements. 

Before  proceeding  further  in  this  investigation,  it  is 
proper  to  remark  that,  in  order  to  bring  together  the 
practical  wisdom  and  judgment  of  some  of  the  best 
farmers  in  the  country,  as  well  as  to  be  able  to  present 
some  statistical  information  in  regard  to  the  product  of 


QUESTIONS    ON    THE    GRASSES.  243 

grass  and  hay  for  that  season,  I  directed  the  following 
circular  to  one  or  more  farmers  in  every  town  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, and  to  many  individuals  in  other  states, 
asking  for  replies  from  each :  , 

AGRICULTURAL  DEPARTMENT,  STATE  HOUSE,  > 
Boston,  Sept.  1,  1856.  5 

DEAR  SIR  :  Will  you  have  the  goodness  to  reply  to 
the  following  inquiries  in  reference  to  the  grass  and 
hay  crop  of  your  town,  according  to  the  best  of  your 
judgment  and  experience?  If  circumstances  prevent 
your  giving  it  personal  attention,  will  you  be  kind 
enough  to  put  it  into  the  hands  of  some  one  interested 
in  the  subject  in  your  neighborhood  who  will  do  me 
the  favor  to  answer  it? 

1.  What  was  the  estimated  yield  of  grass  and  hay  in 
your  town  this  season,  as  compared  with  others?    If 
above  or  below  the  average,  how  much? 

2.  What,  in  your  opinion,  is  the  effect  of  a  wet  or  a 
dry  season  on  the  quality  of  grass  and  hay  ?     Is  grass 
grown  in  the  shade  as  good  as  that  grown  in  the  sun, 
and  what  is  the  difference  ?     [This  question  embraces 
the  intrinsic  value  of  hay  this  season  as  Compared  with 
the  crops  of  1854  and  1855,  both  comparatively  dry 
seasons,  while  this  has  been  unusually  wet  in  most 
parts  of  the  country.] 

3.  In  what  month  do  you  prefer  to  seed  down  land 
designed  for  mowing,  and  what  is  the  reason  of  your 
preference  ? 

4.  What  varieties  of  grass-seed  do  you  usually  sow 
for  mowing,  and  what  for  permanent  pasturage,  and  in 
what  quantities  and  proportions  per  acre  ? 

5;  Do  you  prefer  to  sow  grass-seed  alone  in  either 
case,  or  with  some  variety  of  grain  ?  If  the  latter,  why, 
and  with  what  grain  ? 


244  PRACTICAL    QUESTIONS. 

6.  Have    you    cultivated    or   raised    orchard,    fowl 
meadow,  or  blue  joint  grasses,  and  with  what   result 
as  compared  with  the  yield  and  value  of  other  grasses  ? 

7.  At  what  stage  of  growth  do  you  prefer  to  cut 
grass  to   make   into  English  and  into  swale  hay,  and 
what  is  the  reason  for  your  preference  ? 

8.  What  is  the  best  mode  of  making  hay  from  Timo- 
thy, from  redtop,  and  from  wet  meadow  grass,  and  at 
what  state  of  dryness  do  you  consider  it  made,  or  fit  to 
get  into  the  barn?     [This  question  embraces,  to  some 
extent,  the  time  taken  to  make  it  under   ordinary  cir- 
cumstances   of  good   weather,    <fec.      This,   of  course, 
varies  greatly,  but  some  farmers  would  dry  grass  cut 
in  the  blossom  two  good  hay-days,  while  others  would 
prefer  to  cure  it  less,  and  get  it  in  on  the  day  it  was 
cut.] 

9.  Will  you  state  in  detail  how  you  make  or  cure 
clover ;  and  how,  when  so  cured,  it  compares  in  value 
with  other  kinds  of  hay  to  feed  out  to  farm  stock? 

10.  Have  you  used  hay  caps ;  and  if  so,  with  what 
result,  in  point  of  economy  ?     How  were  they  made, 
and  at  what  cost  ? 

11.  Have  you  used  a  mowing  machine  ;  and  if  so, 
what  patent,  with  what  power,  and  with  what  advan- 
tage? 

12.  At  what  height  from  the  ground  do  you  prefer  to 
have  your  grass  cut,  and  why  ? 

13.  Have  you  used  a  horse-rake;   and  if  so,  what 
patent,  and  with  what  advantage  ? 

14.  Do  you  feed  off  the  after  growth  of  your  mowing 
lands  in  the  fall  ?    Do  you  think  it  an  injury  or  a  benefit 
to  the  field  to  feed  it  off? 

15.  Do  you  top-dress  your  mowing  or  pasture  lands  ; 
and  if  so,  what  manure  do  you  prefer  to  use,  at  what 
time,  and  in  what  quantities  do  you  apply  it  ? 


CIRCULAR    ON    THE    GRASSES.  245 

16.  What  is  the  best  mode  of  renovating  old  worn- 
out  pasture  lands  ? 

17.  If  you  have  any  experience  in  ditching  and  drain- 
ing wet  meadow,. or  ditching  or  diking  salt  marsh,  will 
you  state  the  result,  and  the  comparative  value  of  the 
grass  before  and  after  the  operation  ? 

18.  What  are    the   most  valuable  varieties  of  salt- 
marsh  grassesr  and  how  does  the  hay  made  from  them 
compare  in  value  with  good  English  hay  ? 

19.  Have  you  any  experience  in  irrigating  mowing 
or  pasture  lands;  and  if  so,  what  is  the  result?        ,_ 

20.  Do  you  prefer  to  salt  your  hay  when    putting 
into  the  barn ;  and  if  so,  what  quantity  do  you  use  per 
ton? 

21.  What  do  you  consider  the  best  mode  of  destroy- 
ing couch  or  twitch  grass  ? 

22.  What  is  the  best  mode  of  destroying  the  white 
weed  or  ox-eye  daisy  ? 

23.  Will  you  give  any  other  details  not  suggested  by 
the  above,  which,  in  your  opinion,  may  be  considered 
important,  in  regard  to  this  crop ;  and  particularly,  if 
you  have  experimented  with  any  varieties  of  grass  not  in 
general  cultivation,  such  as  lucerne  or  alfalfa,  rye  grass, 
brome   grass,  Kentucky  blue  grass,  &c.,  will  you  state 
the  results  as  fully  as  possible  ?     If  you  have  any  varie- 
ties of  grass  found  to  be  valuable,  but  not  in  general 
cultivation,  the  names  of  which  are  not  known  to  you, 
will  you  send  them  to  this  office,  where  the  names  will 
be  given  ? 

Very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

CHARLES  L.  FLINT, 
Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture. 

I  was  indebted  to  the  kindness  of  many  enterprising 
and  intelligent  farmers  for  full  and  valuable  answers 
21* 


246  RANGE    OF    CLIMATE. 

from  more  than  two  hundred  towns  in  Massachusetts, 
and  from  several  different  states,  and  these  alone  would 
make  a  valuable  volume  of  themselves.  I  can,  of 
course,  do  no  more  than  extract  from  them  as  freely  as 
space  will  permit,  which  I  shall  do  at  greater  length  in 
subsequent  chapters. 

The  range  of  climate  of  the  United  States  is  so  exten- 
sive, embracing,  we  may  almost  say,  the  tropical  heats 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  short  summers  and  severe 
winters  of  the  Canadas  on  the  other,  that  the  grasses 
adapted  to  one  region  would  not  even  succeed  in 
another.  Some  grasses  which  are  eminently  adapted  to 
sandy  soils  of  a  moist  climate  will  not  grow  on  similar 
arid  soils  in  a  drier  climate  and  under  a  hotter  sun. 

Blodget,  in  a  valuable  article  on  the  climatology  of 
this  country,  makes  the  following  judicious  remarks, 
which  I  have  somewhat  condensed,  on  account  of  their 
length : 

As  now  cultivated  (says  he),  or  as  relied  upon  in  their 
natural  growths,  there  are  two  well-marked  divisions  of 
American  and  naturalized  grasses  belonging  to  the  dry 
and  humid  climates,  respectively,  of  the  whole  United 
States.  There  is  another  distinction  in  the  tempera- 
ture of  moist  climates,  as  the  cultivated  grasses  do  not 
go  into  the  warmer  portions  of  the  country,  however 
humid.  The  English  grasses  are  the  principal  ones, 
embracing  the  genera  Poa,  Phleum,  Festuca,  Agrostis, 
and  Dactylis ;  and  their  most  striking  peculiarity  is  the 
uniform  turf  they  form  in  growth.  Most  of  these  are 
very  well  adapted  to  the  climate  of  the  Northern  and 
Eastern  States,  and  of  the  North  Pacific  coast;  and 
they  here  form  the  great  reliance  of  cultivators.  But 
they  also  approach  their  climatic  limit  here  very  nearly 
in  both  temperature  and  humidity,  and  prove  their 
native  position  to  be  in  a  more  equable  climnte.  The 
winter  of  the  upper  parts  of  the  New  England  States 
and  of  New  York  is  sometimes  destructive  from  low 


HIGH    AND    LOW    TEMPERATUBES.  247 

temperature  alone,  and  the  dry  extremes  are  very 
injurious,  and  sometimes  absolutely  destructive.  What 
precise  measures  of  low  temperature  destroy  these 
grasses,  it  is  difficult  to  say ;  but  every  alternate  year 
affords  some  locality  in  which  the  cold  is  so  great  as  to 
destroy  the  Timothy  and  orchard  grasses.  A  continu- 
ance of  cold  for  some  days  below  zero  of  Fahrenheit, 
and  with  a  minimum  of  20°  below  zero,  is  undoubtedly 
certain  to  be  fatal,  if  the  surface  is  exposed  to  the  air, 
and  is  without  protection  by  snow  or  otherwise. 

There  is  apparently  little  difference  in  the  hardiness 
of  the  principal  cultivated  grasses  in  resisting  the  tem- 
perature extremes.  Low  temperature  alone  may 
destroy  them  in  all  the  elevated  portions  of  the  New 
England  States  and  New  York,  and  in  Wisconsin  and 
some  parts  of  Illinois.  In  most  cases  the  destruction 
of  the  three  principal  grasses  occurs  at  the  same  time, 
and  no  singling  out  of  particular  species  is  remarked. 

In  the  direction  of  high  temperatures  there  appears 
no  definite  limit  of  this  sort,  or  none  depending  on 
single  extremes ;  but  all  these  grasses  fail  when  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  summer  months  attains  to  80°. 
They  have  but  a  variable  and  uncertain  success  in  Vir- 
ginia, and  in  all  the  states  south  and  westward  they  are 
still  less  reliable,  or  fail  altogether.  As  they  are  all 
perennial  in  the  highest  sense,  the  whole  year  arid  all 
its  extremes  must  be  taken  into  the  account.  They 
cannot,  as  in  the  cereals,  choose  a  portion  of  the  year 
only,  and  adapt  their  requirement  of  time  to  the  tem- 
perature. In  this  respect  they  differ  most  widely  from 
a  very  important  class  of  native  grasses,  which  occupy 
the  arid  portions  of  the  continent. 

In  further  notice  of  the  limitations  of  the  European 
grasses,  the  humidity  of  climate  must  be  considered. 
The  dry  extremes  of  many  of  the  states  where  they 
may  generally  succeed  are  quite  injurious  or  destruc- 
tive in  many  cases,  and  this  is  especially  true  of  the 
states  at  the  West,  where  the  soil  is  less  tenacious  and 
retentive  than  at  the  East.  They  fail  to  form  the  charac- 
teristic turf  there,  and  are  so  much  injured  by  those  dry 


248  NORTHERN    LIMIT    OF    GRASSES. 

periods  as  to  become  displaced,  or  to  decay  gradually, 
if  not  suddenly,  and  to  require  frequent  renewal.  This 
departure  from  the  native  climate  of  these  grasses  is  so 
great  at  the  plains  beyond  the  Mississippi,  as  to  require 
a  wholly  new  class  ;  and  the  European  forms  there  cease, 
to  reappear  only  on  the  coast  of  the  Pacific,  in  Oregon 
and  Washington  Territories,  where  the  English  climate 
is  itself  in  some  degree  reproduced. 

The  -northern  or  low  temperature  limits  of  these 
grasses  appear  nearly  identical  with  those  of  wheat ; 
and  their  liability  to  destruction  by  the  cold  of  winter 
alone,  without  regard  to  the  lifting  of  the  plant  from 
the  soil,  as  in  the  case  with  wheat  on  tenacious  soils, 
does  not  greatly  differ.  The  grasses  will  perhaps  endure 
a  few  degrees  lower  temperature. 

The  high  temperature  limits  are  nearly  the  same  as 
with  wheat  also,  taking  the  month  of  ripening  for  wheat 
as  the  highest  temperature  for  any  month  of  the  year. 
The  range  of  the  English  grasses  is  here  little  greater 
than  that  of  wheat,  in  this  definition.  As  in  cultivation, 
they  succeed  when  the  mean  temperature  for  July  is 
75°  to  78°,  while  the  limit  of  wheat  is  little  above  70° 
for  the  same  month.  In  cultivation,  without  unusual 
care,  they  would  not  differ  widely. 

There  is  a  possible  limit  also  in  low  summer  tempera- 
tures, especially  if  accompanied  with  a  large  amount  of 
moisture  in  the  soil  and  atmosphere.  We  are  not  able 
to  give  as  precise  limits  for  the  English  climate  in  this 
respect  as  for  wheat,  though  the  grasses  we  have  re- 
ceived from  there  will  not  go  many  degrees  lower  than 
wheat  for  the  ripening  period,  —  probably  not  lower 
than  to  55°  for  the  warmest  month  of  summer,  while 
the  same  limit  for  wheat  is  above  57°.  In  the  United 
States  it  m'<\y  not  go  so  low ;  though  the  question  is 
practically  unimportant,  as  we  have  no  districts  below 
60°  for  July.  In  cold  and  wet  localities  of  the  North- 
ern States,  the  difficulty  of  preserving  these  grasses  is 
well  known  ;  and,  as  in  other  directions  of  limit,  they 
fail  gradually  under  measures  of  climatic  disadvantage 
not  absolutely  destructive. 


GRASSES    OF    AN    ARID    CLIMATE.  249 

The  contrasted  class  of  grasses  adapted  to  arid  cli- 
mates may  advantageously  be  examined  next,  and  these 
are  all,  or  nearly  all,  natives  of  the  interior  and  western 
portions  of  this  continent,  where  they  are  required. 
Nutritious  grasses  of  general  range  over  the  country 
of  their  origin  are  few  in  number,  while  those  growing 
in  particular  localities,  as  in  wet  or  sheltered  spots,  or 
in  others  not  representing  the  general  surface,  are  quite 
numerous  everywhere.  The  principal  of  the  new  Amer- 
ican grasses  is  the  bunch  grass  (Festuca),  the  buffalo 
grass,  or  small  gramma,  and  the  other  species  of  gram- 
ma grass  (Bouteloua). 

The  range  of  these  is,  for  the  last,  or  the  gramma 
grass  proper,  as  given  by  Captain  Marcy  in  his  Report 
on  the  survey  of  Red  River,  "  bounded  on  the  north  by 
near  the  parallel  of  36°  north  latitude,  and  on  the  east 
by  the  meridian  of  98°  west  longitude.  It  extends  south 
and  west  indefinitely,  but  appears  to  flourish  better  in 
about  the  latitude  of  33°  than  any  other.  As  there  is 
generally  a  drought  on  these  prairies  from  about  the 
first  of  May  to  the  middle  of  August,  it  would  appear 
that  the  particular  varieties  of  grass  growing  here  do 
not  require  much  moisture  to  sustain  them." 

The  buffalo  grass,  or  small  gramma,  extends  at  least 
to  latitude  40°  in  the  same  longitude,  and  the  asso- 
ciated species  called  mezquite,  with  this,  cover  the 
best  portions  of  the  valley  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake,  with 
the  entire  country  south  and  west  on  which  rains  fall  at 
any  season.  This  whole  family  is  extremely  valuable, 
seeding  profusely,  and  covering  every  portion  of  the 
country  where  sufficient  rain  for  its  growth  may  be 
found  at  any  season.  In  the  mountains  a  winter  variety 
is  found  remaining  fresh,  while  that  of  the  plains  and 
valleys  is  dried  by  the  late  summer  heats.  The  whole 
class  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  requirement  of  the 
country,  as  they  remain  during  the  warmest  months  of 
summer,  and  until  the  rains  of  the  next  season  come 
on,, in  a  dried  form,  preserving  the  nutritive  qualities 
throughout. 

The  precise  time  at  which  the  heat  and  aridity  check 


250  THE    FRAHU'E    GLASSES. 

its  growth,  and  convert  it  into  dried  hay,  is  not  suffi- 
ciently known  for  the  different  districts.  It  is  probably 
controlled  more  by  absence  of  water  in  the  soil,  and 
want  of  rain,  than  by  temperature  —  the  heat  being 
sufficient  for  this  purpose  when  the  water  wholly  fails. 

AVislizenus,  Emory,  and  Abert,  met  the  smaller  gram- 
ma, called  the  buffalo  grass,  at  38°  north  latitude,  and 
by  their  references  it  might  be  inferred  that  this  was 
the  northern  border  at  that  degree  of  longitude.  But 
Fremont  found  it  at  40°,  on  the  same  meridian,  and  98° 
west  longitude,  and  near  the  Platte  or  Nebraska  River. 
It  probably  extends  still  further  northward,  and  over 
much  of  this  great  plain  to  the  Missouri.  There  are  no 
satisfactory  notices  of  the  grasses  of  this  great  region ; 
but  the  inference  is  reasonable  that  it  should  range 
nearly  as  far  as  subsistence  is  afforded  to  the  immense 
herds  of  buffalo  occupying  that  area.  The  recent  sur- 
veys north  of  the  Missouri  were,  however,  unable  to 
find  any  considerable  amount  of  it ;  and  Richardson  was 
also  unable  to  find  the  buffalo  grass  on  the  Saskatcha- 
wan,  though  at  the  time  of  his  visit  recent  fires  had 
destroyed  the  growth  of  all  kinds.  He  remarks  a  large 
intermixture  of  carices  with  the  festuca,  and  other  true 
grasses,  on  all  the  northern  portions  of  the  prairie 
region. 

The  new  forms  of  valuable  grasses  found  in  this  great 
range  in  our  interior  deserve  the  greatest  attention  in 
reference  to  their  introduction  in  field  cultivation.  The 
native  species  of  the  prairie  region,  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, probably  cannot  be  cultivated  —  they  give  way 
too  easily  at  the  approach  of  cultivation,  and  those  of 
the  dry  prairies  are  rarely  found  in  seed.  The  turf  of 
this  prairie  growth  is  very  strong  and  enduring ;  and 
in  the  native  state  these  are  valuable  grasses,  well 
adapted  to  the  intermediate  climates  in  which  they 
occur,  where  the  humid  and  dry  conditions  pass  into 
each  other  by  gradual  transition.  These  range  over 
most  of  the  country  of  the  upper  Missouri,  as  well  as 
on  the  prairies  eastward. 

There  is  a  large  district  in  the  United  States  deficient 


CALIFORNIA    GRASSES.  251 

in  adaptation  to  our  present  cultivated  grasses,  to  which 
it  may  be  possible  to  bring  those  of  the  interior  ulti- 
mately. The  prairie  districts  of  the  states  bordering 
the  Mississippi,  and  the  principal  portion  of  the  South- 
ern States,  greatly  need  some  better  adaptations  both 
to  their  soil  and  climate.  The  new  grasses  of  the  south- 
west would  probably  not  find  a  congenial  climate  in  the 
Southern  States,  because  of  the  excess  of  rain  and  of 
atmospheric  humidity  ;  but  for  the  drier  portions  of 
the  states  in  the  upper  Mississippi  valley  they  may  be 
found  well  suited.  Some  success  has  already  attended 
efforts  to  introduce  them. 

They  are  perennials  of  as  great  endurance  in  the  turf, 
apparently,  as  the  English  grasses,  though  they  spread 
very  slowly  by  the  expansion  of  the  root,  and  are  re- 
ported to  leave  the  centre  of  the  concentric  tufts  in 
which  they  grow,  open,  as  by  decay  of  the  original 
root.  But  all  the  gramma  and  associated  grasses  pro- 
duce seed  largely,  and  under  cultivation  they  might 
become  all  that  could  be  desired  as  field  grasses. 

In  California  valuable  native  grasses  exist,  in  part  of 
these  and  in  part  of  other  genera.  There  the  climate 
is  even  more  extreme  in  its  contrasts,  and  some  of  the 
valuable  grasses  appear  to  be  annuals.  The  bunch 
grass  (festuoa)  is  abundant  on  the  upland  slopes  and 
valleys,  and  it  is  there,  as  everywhere,  of  great  value. 
Whether  this  miy  be  cultivated  is  more  problematical 
than  in  case  of  the  gramma,  and  there  has  probably  been 
no  attempt  at  it  yet.  In  the  lower  plains  and  valleys 
oat  grasses  and  annuals  form  a  larger  share;  but  whether 
they  are  exclusive  occupants  is  not  sufficiently  known. 
There  is  certainly  a  tendency  towards  a  less  perma- 
nently perennial  character  in  most  of  the  grasses  of  the 
South  and  West,  and  they  approach  the  higher  grami- 
naceous forms  which  constitute  the  grains  more  nearly 
than  those  of  northern  origin,  and  the  natives  of  humid 
climates. 

Bryant,  in  a  work  on  California  some  years  since, 
says  of  the  grasses  of  that  country  :  "  The  varieties  of 
grasses  are  greater  than  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  con- 


252  GRASSES    OF    T'tlE    INTERIOR. 

tinent,  and  they  are  also  far  more  nutritious.  I  have 
seen  seven  different  kinds  of  clover  "  (not  analogous  to 
the  true  clovers),  "  several  of  them  in  a  dry  state,  depos- 
iting a  seed  upon  the  ground  so  abundant  as  to  cover 
it,  which  is  eaten  by  cattle,  horses,  and  other  animals, 
as  corn  and  oats,  when  threshed,  would  be.  All  the 
grasses  —  and  they  cover  the  entire  country  —  are 
heavily  seeded,  and  when  ripe  are  as  fattening  to  stock 
as  other  grains." 

The  grains  are,  indeed,  the  product  of  the  great  con- 
tinental interior  of  the  Eastern  continent,  and  belong  to 
arid  climates  wholly  in  their  original  state.  By  analogy, 
we  might  look  for  high  graminaceous  forms  in  the  inte- 
rior of  this  continent,  but  it  is  not  known  that  any  bread 
grain  has  had  its  origin  in  climates  similar  to  our  own. 
Maize  is  one  of  the  grasses  or  higher  graminaceous 
plants;  but  this  had  a  tropical  origin,  and  it  is,  wherever 
grown,  of  a  purely  tropical  type. 

The  grasses  of  the  American  interior  are  singular  in 
all  respects,  and,  so  far  as  known,  have  no  analogous 
forms  in  Asia.  Too  little  is  known,  however,  of  the 
nutritious  grasses  of  the  interior  of  the  Old  World,  to 
institute  a  comparison  of  its  forms  found  in  arid  climates 
with  those  produced  here.  It  may  be  briefly  referred 
to  as  a  most  desirable  point  for  investigation,  however, 
and  the  continuance  of  the  examination  respecting  cli- 
matic adaptation  for  the  great  interior  area  of  our  agri- 
culture is  urged  by  the  strongest  consideration  of  both 
private  and  national  economy. 

Fremont  remarks  of  the  value  of  these  indigenous 
grasses,  as  found  in  his  earlier  expedition  to  the  Great 
Basin  and  to  Oregon  :  "  The  grazing  capabilities  of  this 
region  are  great,  and  in  the  indigenous  grasses  an  ele- 
ment of  individual  and  national  wealth  may  be  found. 
In  fact,  the  valuable  grasses  begin  within  one  hundred 
and  fifty  miles  of  the  Missouri  frontier,  and  extend  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  East  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  it  is 
the  short  curly  grass,  on  which  the  buffalo  delight  to 
feed  (whence  its  name  of  buffalo  grass],  and  which  is 
still  good  when  dry  and  apparently  dead.  West  of  the 


GRASSES    OF    THE    SOUTH.  253 

mountains  it  is  a  larger  growth,  in  clusters,  and  hence 
called  bunch  grass.  This  has  a  second  or  fall  growth. 
Plains  and  mountains  both  exhibit  them,  and  I  have 
seen  good  pasturage  at  an  elevation  of  ten  thousand 
feet.  In  this  spontaneous  product  the  trading  or  trav- 
elling caravans  can  find  subsistence  for  their  animals  ; 
and  in  military  operations  any  number  of  cavalry  may 
be  moved,  and  any  number  of  cattle  may  be  driven, 
and  thus  men  and  horses  supported  on  long  expedi- 
tions, and  even  in  winter  in  the  sheltered  situations." 

Little  allusion  has  so  far  been  made  to  the  grasses 
fitted  to  the  climate  of  the  humid  districts  of  the  South. 
These  have  an  essentially  different  requirement  from 
either  the  arid  regions  of  the  interior  and  south-west, 
or  the  debatable  ground  between  these  and  the  other 
extreme  in  the  cool  and  humid  climates  of  the  north  and 
east.  From  these  last  they  of  course  differ  still  more 
widely. 

Experiment  has  very  satisfactorily  proved  the  impos- 
sibility of  carrying  the  English  and  northern  grasses 
under  the  excessive  temperatures  found  in  the  South- 
ern State?.  Both  the  temperature  and  humidity,  or 
the  joint  effect  of  these  rather,  preclude  their  growth 
entirely,  though  it  is  difficult  to  say  whether  either 
condition  alone  would  so  preclude  it.  Comparing  the 
more  humid  climates  of  England  with  those  of  equally 
high  saturation  of  the  South,  we  might  infer  that  tem- 
perature alone  caused  the  difference  ;  but  positions  in 
the  states  near  the  39th  parallel  of  latitude  have  temper- 
atures in  summer  quite  equal  to  those  near  the  Gulf, 
and  yet  permit  a  considerable  success  in  the  growth  of 
English  grasses. 

Agriculturists  at  the  South  have  scarcely  been  suc- 
cessful in  the  attention  hitherto  given  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  valuable  grasses.  Their  cultivation  is  less  a 
necessity  of  plantation  management  than  of  farm  occu- 
pation, as  at  the  North,  and  it  only  becomes  imperatively 
such  when  the  preservation  of  the  soil  from  washing  and 
exhaustion  becomes  necessary.  Such  is,  at  present,  the 
state  of  much  of  the  cultivated  area  at  the  South,  and  it 


254  DIFFICULTY    OF '"FORMING    TURF. 

is  of  the  first  importance  to  know  whether  the  perma- 
nent grass  covering  of  the  soil  may  be  attained  by  any 
possible  means. 

The  normal  range  of  the  grasses,  strictly  speaking,  is 
not  so  far  south.  Their  native  climates  are  north  of 
the  native  grain  districts,  and  in  cooler  and  more  humid 
atmospheres ;  while  the  southern  part  of  the  United 
States  has  a  tropical  summer,  and  lies  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  climatological  limit.  We  cannot  anticipate 
success  in  grasses  taken  from  the  colder  extreme  in  this 
opposite  position,  and  probably  very  little  for  those 
adapted  to  dry  climates,  whether  warm  or  cold.  The 
source  should  be  tropical  or  semi-tropical;  and  such 
has,  indeed,  been  the  origin  of  many  species  introduced 
and  cultivated  to  some  extent  at  the  South.  The 
Guinea  grass  (Sorghum  vulgare)  is  of  this  sort,  and 
the  Bermuda  grass  (Cynodon  dactylon}.  The  last  is 
much  like  the  cane  in  its  root  and  habit  of  growth,  and 
both  are  purely  tropical  forms.  The  sugar-cane  is  itself 
frequently  cultivated  as  a  grass,  with  success,  and  all 
these  are  more  easily  cultivated  as  forage  plants,  to  be 
used  for  pasturage  and  soiling  only,  than  as  dried  in  the 
form  of  hay.  The  succulent  character  of  the  growth 
scarcely  permits  curing ;  and  the  mixture  of  "  winter 
grasses,"  or  the  coarser  festucas  often  cultivated  there 
for  their  winter's  produce,  of  which  the  gramma  grass 
arid  the  technical  "  winter  grass  "  are  the  principal,  will, 
ultimately,  be  necessary  to  answer  the  end  proposed  in 
their  grass  cultivation,  and  indispensable,  indeed,  to 
their  agricultural  prosperity.  The  gramma  grass  of 
Texas  and  New  Mexico  may  bear  a  considerable  exten- 
sion over  the  drier  soils  and  least  humid  portions  of  the 
South,  and  it  has  already  been  introduced  with  some 
success. 

It  has  been  found  extremely  difficult  to  form  a  close 
turf  or  sward  below  the  latitudes  of  the  more  equa- 
ble distribution  of  rain  ;  and  this  is  the  case  south  of 
Baltimore,  in  latitude  39°  18',  owing  to  the  excessive  and 
often  long-continued  heat  and  drought.  Even  lucerne, 


EFFECT    OF    SHADE.  25,5 

which  grows  in  great  perfection  in  the  south  of  France, 
is  very  unreliable  south  of  Philadelphia,  from  the  heat, 
and  north  of  it  from  the  cold. 

The  growth  of  grass  south  of  the  parallel  of  39°  is 
similar  to  that  on  the  dry  and  arid  sands  in  higher  north- 
ern latitudes.  Most  of  the  higher  English  grasses  fail, 
in  such  situations,  to  form  a  close  turf,  and  give  place 
to  the  tufted  or  jungle  grasses,  or  to  such  as  refuse  to 
grow  in  close  companionship  with  others.  In  going- 
west  from  the  Mississippi  River  a  close-cultivated  turf  is 
rare  ;  and  the  same  is  the  case,  as  already  seen,  south 
of  Washington,  or  perhaps  south  of  Baltimore,  and  of 
the  line  running  west  from  there  to  the  Mississippi. 
The  clovers  may  be  cultivated  to  some  extent ;  but, 
though  valuable  as  forage  plants,  they  become  poor 
substitutes  for  the  close  and  beautiful  sward  of  a  cooler 
climate.  In  California  several  species  of  medicago  are 
highly  esteemed,  and  are  known  under  the  general  term 
of  "  California  clover." 

It  must  be  evident,  from  what  has  been  said,  that  the 
climate  of  the  United  States  is  not  so  well  adapted,  as 
a  whole,  to  bring  the  higher  grasses  to  perfection,  as 
that  of  England.  A  moist  and  equable  climate  is  best 
adapted  to  all  this  class  of  plants,  —  that  is,  to  promote 
their  rich  luxuriance  of  growth.  The  nutritive  quali- 
ties of  grasses  grown  under  greater  heat  and  a  drier 
climate  are,  undoubtedly,  superior  ;  and  this  is  a  fact 
familiar  to  every  observing  farmer.  Grass  grown  in  a 
wet  season,  or  very  moist  climate,  bears  a  striking  re- 
semblance to  that  grown  under  the  shade  of  trees. 

The  remarks  of  a  practical  farmer  of  Kentucky  well 
express  the  general  estimate  made  by  most  farmers  in 
reply  to  the  second  question  proposed  in  the  circular 
given  on  a  preceding  page.  "  Just  so  far/'  says  he,  "as 
there  is  shade,  is  the  grass  deficient  in  saccharine  and 


256  HEAT    AND    'JlOISTURE. 

nutritious  qualities ;  that  grass  which  is  most  exposed 
to  the  sun  being  best.  Woodland  pastures  will  keep 
young  stock  growing,  and  old  ones  on  foot,  but  will 
not  fatten  them.  A  three-year-old  Durham  will  get 
'stall  fat'  in  a  year  on  open  blue  grass." 

A  farmer  of  Massachusetts  says :  "  Grass  grown  in 
the  shade  is  lighter,  and  does  not  contain  so  much  nutri- 
ment. Wet  seasons  increase  the  weight  and  bulk  of  the 
crop  ;  but  the  same  weight  does  not  contain  the  amount 
of  nutritive  matter  of  hay  raised  in  a  dry  season."  And 
another :  "  Hay  grown  in  a  dry  season  contains  more 
nutriment.  This  is  particularly  noticeable  in  the  con- 
dition of  cattle  in  the  spring  following  a  dry  season.  I 
do  not  consider  grass  grown  in  a  dense  shade  worth 
over  half  price."  "  From  an  experience  of  fifty  years 
in  making  hay,  and  thirty-five  in  feeding  it  out  and  sell- 
ing  it,"  says  an  intelligent  practical  farmer,  "  I  should 
say  that  in  a  wet  season  I  never  found  anything  like  so 
much  heart  or  nutriment  in  hay  as  in  a  dry  one.  Crass 
grown  under  a  thick,  shady  tree  is  not  worth  one-half 
as  much  as  that  grown  in  the  sun.  The  grass  this  year 
(1856)  was  well  set  in  the  spring,  and  grew  very  quick 
when  the  warm  weather  came  on;  but  still  we  had  much 
good,  warm  sun  to  bring  it  to  maturity,  and  I  think  it 
will  spend  pretty  well,  but  probably  not  quite  as  well 
as  the  same  bulk  last  year./' 

It  is  not  necessary  to  multiply  the  authorities  of 
practical  farmers  on  this  point,  since  they  uniformly 
coincide  with  the  testimony  given  above  ;  and  it  may 
be  regarded  as  fully  established  as  the  result  both  of 
scientific  investigations  and  of  practical  experience,  that 
both  the  quantity  and  the  quality  of  grass  are  in  pro- 
portion to  the  heat  or  sunlight  and  the  moisture  in 
which  it  is  grown. 

What  has  been  said  will  explain  the  allowance  which 


COMPENSATIONS.  —  SNOW.  257 

it  may  be  proper  to  make  in  the  analyses  of  grass 
grown  in  a  climate  of  less  heat  and  less  sunshine  than 
our  own.  It  will  also  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  our 
own  grasses,  grown  on  low,  moist  lands,  are  neither  so 
sweet  nor  so  nutritious  as  the  same  species  grown  on 
higher  and  drier  soils  ;  and  it  is  a  fact  which  has  fallen 
under  the  observation  of  practical  farmers,  that  the 
grasses  on  low  lands  do  not  produce  so  much  nor  so 
good  a  quality  of  milk,  nor  so  much  fat  in  animals,  as 
the  same  species  of  grass  grown  on  upland  soils. 

But,  though  we  cannot  boast  of  so  luxuriant  a  growth 
of  the  grasses  as  other  and  more  favorable  climates,  we 
have,  as  already  remarked,  at  least  some  compensations. 
With  the  necessities  of  our  rigorous  northern  winters 
to  provide  for,  the  English  summers,  with  their  daily 
and  almost  hourly  rains,  would  make  it  extremely  diffi- 
cult to  put  in  the  proper  stores  of  winter  food  for  our 
stock. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  destruction  of  the  grasses 
from  the  colds  of  winter  is  less  to  be  apprehended  in 
some  of  the  higher  northern  latitudes  than  in  somewhat 
milder  climates.  In  the  northern  and  eastern  portions 
of  Maine,  for  instance,  the  snow  generally  falls  before 
the  frost  has  penetrated  to  any  great  depth ;  and  it 
usually  lasts,  often  very  deep,  till  the  spring  opens; 
and  as  soon  as  it  is  gone  the  grass  is  green  and  luxu- 
riant, and  the  sod  ready  for  the  plough ;  while  in  Wash- 
ington the  cultivated  grasses  are  absolutely  destroyed 
both  by  the  colds  of  winter  and  the  heats  of  summer ; 
and  this  very  frequently  happens,  —  more  frequently 
than  in  higher  latitudes,  and  where  the  actual  severity 
of  the  cold  is  greater.  It  is  the  frequent  alternation  of 
cold  and  warmth,  rather  than  the  low  degree  of  temper- 
ature, that  is  most  injurious  to  vegetation. 

We  have  already  seen  that  in  the  Middle  States  some 
22* 


258  THE    GRAMMA    GRASSES. 

of  the  species  of  Poa —  such,  for  instance,  as  the  Ken- 
tucky Blue  grass  (Poa  pratemis]  —  appear  to  take  the 
lead, as  among  the  most  important  pasture  grasses.  This 
species  is  known  as  Green  grass  in  Pennsylvania.  It  is 
said  also  to  bear  the  hottest  summers  of  Tennessee, 
where  it  is  reckoned  one  of  the  best  grasses,  while  it 
grows  with  the  utmost  luxuriance  in  Kentucky,  and  as 
far  north  as  Indianapolis,  in  wooded  pastures,  and  forms 
a  large  proportion  of  the  turf  even  in  New  England. 
This  and  nearly  allied  species  are  not  adapted,  however, 
to  alternate  husbandry. 

Beyond  the  limits  of  these  on  the  south,  the  Gramma, 
the  Guinea,  and  the  Bermuda  grasses,  take  the  lead ; 
while  the  sugar-cane  itself  is  not  unfrequently  culti- 
vated as  a  fodder  plant.  Some  of  the  festucas,  also,  grow 
well,  and  withstand  the  hot  climate,  and  form  a  valua- 
ble winter  feed  for  cattle.  They  are  known  there  by 
the  term  "winter  grass."  In  many  sections,  also,  the 
Common  Reed  Grass  (Phragmites  communis)  and  its 
allied  species  cover  the  low  grounds,  and  afford  a  large 
amount  of  nutritive  herbage,  till  cut  off  by  the  frosts  ; 
while  on  the  dry  plains  west  of  these  sections,  the 
gramma  grasses,  or,  as  they  are  often  called,  the  Mezquite 
(one  or  more  of  the  species  of  Bouteloua),  become  the 
most  valuable  of  the  native  species  found  in  a  belt  of 
country  with  about  the  thirty-fifth  parallel  as  its  centre. 
The  Buffalo  grass,  or  small  gramma,  is  one  of  these 
species  found  as  far  north  as  the  fortieth  parallel. 

The  gramma  grasses  are  valuable  chiefly  as  being 
adapted  to  a  hot  climate.  Their  growth  is  mainly  in  the 
rainy  season,  and  they  seed  abundantly  as  the  dry  season 
approaches.  In  the  section  of  country  west  from  the 
State  of  Arkansas,  the  rainy  season  is  in  the  spring ; 
in  the  northern  part  of  Mexico,  it  is  in  summer :  in 
southern  Texas,  in  autumn,  and  in  some  parts  of  New 


CLIMATIC    EANGE    OF    GRAINS.  259 

Mexico,in  winter  ;  so  that  the  period  of  greatest  growth 
of  the  gramma  or  muskit  grasses  is  various,  being  regu- 
lated chiefly  by  the  rains  ;  but  even  when  dry  they  form 
a  very  nutritive  food  for  stock. 

On  the  western  prairies  but  few  valuable  native 
grasses  are  found.  While  they  are  allowed  to  grow 
wild  they  cover  the  soil  with  a  pretty  close  growth; 
but  when  the  turf  is  once  broken  it  is  very  difficult  to 
reform  it  with  the  better  English  grasses,  except  around 
low  spots,  or  places  well  supplied  with  moisture. 

With  respect  to  the  climatic  range  of  the  grains, 
such  as  wheat  and  Indian  corn,  and  others  spoken  of  in 
Chapter  II.,  little  need  be  added  in  this  connection. 
With  the  exception  of  Indian  corn,  the  grains  are  ex- 
otics, and  for  the  most  part  natives  of  a  moist  climate,  or 
came  to  us  naturalized  in  a  climate  much  more  moist  than 
our  own.  They  flourish  best,  therefore,  in  the  cooler 
parts  of  this  country,  though  their  range  of  climate, 
with  the  exception  of  rice,  is  very  great.  In  the  more 
southern  portions  they  ripen  before  the  hot,  dry  weather 
comes  on.  The  English  grasses,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  are  destroyed  by  it. 

For  Indian  corn,  which  is  a  tropical  plant,  there  is  no 
southern  limit  of  growth  in  this  country,  while  the 
northern  limit  to  its  profitable  culture  may  be  stated  in 
general  at  the  point  where  the  mean  temperature  is 
about  68°  Fahrenheit.  The  flexibility  of  its  organization 
is  such  that  while  in  a  warm  climate  it  may  grow  for  a 
period  of  four  or  five  months,  or  even  more,  in  colder 
latitudes  it  will  ripen  in  two  and  a  half  or  three  months, 
and  rarely  requires  over  four  months.  A  small  variety 
is  cultivated  as  far  north  as  fifty-one  degrees  of  latitude, 
on  the  Red  River.  It  requires  great  summer  heats,  but 
will  often  succeed  well  in  the  northern  states  with  a 
cool  and  rainy  summer,  provided  there  is  a  week  or  two 


260 


GROWTH    OF    INDIAN    CORN. 


of  hot  weather  in  the  month  of  June  or  early  in  July, 
and  a  late  fall  with  warm  weather  at  the  period  of 
ripening.  It  will  not  endure  a  mean  temperature  below 
65°  in  the  growing  season,  but  the  morning  and  even- 
ing temperature  may  be  low,  provided  the  midday  heat 
is  sufficient  to  carry  up  the  mean  of  the  month  beyond 
that  point.  This  high  curve  of  heat  at  midday  is  so 
essential  that,  without  it,  there  will  be  no  formation 
of  saccharine  matter  in  the  plant,  nor  will  it  mature ; 
while  with  it  the  temperature  of  the  night  may  be 
quite  low.  This  is  one,  and  almost  the  only,  condition 
absolutely  essential  to  its  successful  culture,  and  this 
condition  is  fulfilled  in  almost  every  part  of  the  coun- 
try, except  the  mountainous  districts  above  mentioned. 
.As  a  means  of  reference,  the  following  may  be  given  as 
the  results  of  observations  at  the  Observatory  at  Cam- 
bridge during  the  growing  months  of  1854,  1855,  and 
1856,  which  do  not  vary  much  from  the  mean  or 
average  temperature  of  these  months  in  any  series  of 
years. 

The  observations  were  made  four  times  a  day,  —  at 
sunrise,  9  A.  M.,  3  and  9  p.  M.,  the  latitude  being 
42°  22'  48",  the  longitude  71°  1'. 


Months. 

Mr-nil 

Trmp.  in 
1854. 

I!  .in  in 
1S.54. 

Mean 
'W 

Ruin  In 

185.5. 

Monn 
Temn.  in 
IMS, 

Rain  in 
1856. 

March  

83  3.1 

Inche.. 

2  949 

323  31 

Inches. 
1  159 

26°  98 

Tnchoi. 

o  070 

April      .    .    . 

4«>3  9 

4  842 

44    08 

o  qqQ 

45°  8'1 

3  732 

May,      

67°  7 

5  453 

53°  40 

1  501 

593  55 

6  73-> 

65°  9 

n  CQ- 

fi-v3  48 

q  r.Q-i 

f.9;  Oft 

9  oon 

July       

723  9 

3  939 

72D  ^4 

4  845 

793  7« 

A  040 

68°  6 

0  351 

67°  31 

2270 

67°  31 

14  981 

September,     .... 

61°.4 

4360 

6P.45 

1.216 

62J.98 

The  season  of  1858  was  remarkable  in  most  parts  of 
New  England  as  a  season  of  frequent  rains  and  cool 


CLIMATIC    RANGE    OF    WHEAT.  261 

weather  in  July  and  August,  and  the  farmers  generally 
predicted  a  failure  of  the  corn  crop,  and  wondered  all 
the  summer  at  the  luxuriant  growth  of  this  plant.  The 
secret  of  it  undoubtedly  was  that  the  last  week  of  June 
and  the  first  week  of  July  were  excessively  hot,  though 
the  rest  of  the  season  was  unusually  cool  and  moist. 
The  ground  had  become  warmed  to  a  great  depth,  and 
this  was  sufficient  to  give  the  plant  a  rapid  growth 
through  the  rest  of  the  growing  season.  Every  part  of 
the  country  is,  therefore,  adapted  to  Indian  corn,  with 
the  exception  of  the  higher  mountainous  parts  of  New 
England,  and  northern  New  York,  and  northern  Wis- 
consin and  Minnesota. 

There  are  great  staples  of  the  Southern  States  more 
profitable,  it  is  true,  owing  to  their  extremely  limited 
range  of  climate  ;  but,  as  a  plant  for  the  whole  country, 
no  other  can  compare  with  it  in  importance. 

The  climatic  range  of  wheat  and  barley  is  still 
greater,  for  both  grow  successfully  at  small  elevations 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  on  the  borders  of  the  trop- 
ics, while  wheat  may  be  cultivated  as  far  north  as 
60°,  and  the  culture  of  barley  extends  to  the  polar 
circle.  The  climatic  range  of  oats  does  not  materially 
vary  from  that  of  wheat. 

But,  though  the  absolute  range  of  climate  for  wheat 
is  greater  than  that  of  Indian  corn,  there  are  more  local 
conditions  which  affect  it,  and  hence  its  most  profitable 
limit  of  cultivation  may  not  be  much  greater. 

The  districts  of  this  country  which  correspond 
most  nearly  to  the  great  wheat-growing  sections  of 
Europe  may  be  found  in  central  New  York,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  a  part  of  Maryland,  and  a  section  through  the 
states  lying  immediately  south  of  the  great  northern 
lakes,  including  the  prairie  lands  west  from  Lake  Michi- 
gan. In  these  sections  the  mean  temperature  of 


262  THE    WHEAT    DISTRICTS. 

summer  ranges  from  68°  to  71°,  and  the  grain  ripens 
usually  in  July.  In  the  extreme  southern  states  May 
is  the  harvest  month,  and  the  mean  temperature  of  that 
is  from  67°  to  70°.  In  Virginia  the  wheat  harvest 
extends  into  June,  and  the  mean  temperature  is  from 
03°  to  65°  for  May,  and  from  68°to  72°  for  June,  while  in 
central  New  York  the  harvest  extends  into  July,  and 
the  mean  temperature  of  the  former  month  there  is  64°, 
and  that  of  the  latter  69° ;  and  in  Illinois,  where  the 
wheat  harvest  ends  in  June,  the  temperature  is  below 
70°,  while  the  temperature  of  May  is  from  60°  to  62°. 

As  already  intimated,  many  local  modifications  are 
required  in  taking  an  account  of  the  influence  of 
climate  on  the  growth  of  wheat.  A  low  temperature 
for  the  growing  months,  which  may  be  a  rare  exception, 
will  of  course  affect  it.  The  summer  of  1853  in  Eng- 
land, for  instance,  was  about  two  degrees  below  the 
average  of  mean  temperature,  and  the  consequence  was 
that  the  wheat  crop  fell  off  from  a  third  to  a  half.  July 
and  August  of  that  year  gave  a  mean  temperature  of 
from  57°  to  59°,  while  60°  are  required  there  to  insure 
a  good  harvest.  The  climate  of  our  Pacific  coast  more 
nearly  resembles  the  climate  of  western  Europe  than  it 
does  that  of  our  own  Atlantic  coast. 

The  following  statistics  of  the  mean  temperature  of 
the  months  of  growth  and  ripening  of  wheat  and  similar 
grains,  in  wheat  sections  of  this  country  and  in  Europe, 
will  be  valuable  for  reference  : 

April.  May.  June.  July. 

Gettysburg,  Pa.,  .   .   .  50°.3  6(K6  69°.2  743 

Rochester,  N.  Y.,  .   .   .  44°. 7  66°.l  65°.0  69°.9 

Oberlin,  Ohio,  .   .   .   .48°.!  69°.4  67°.6  75°.6 

Milwaukie,  Wis 40°.7  61°.3  64°.8  69°.8 

March.  April.  May.  June. 

Chapel  Hill,  N.  C.,  .   .  61°.l  59^.5  67°.3  74°.7 

Athens,  Ga.,     ....  65°.0  64°.0  69°.  1  75°.4 


COVERING     OF    SNOW.  263 

March.  April                May  June. 

Nashville,  Tenn 49°.4  61°.9  6fr.)  76=.  5 

Fort  McKavett,  Tex.,  .  57°. 4  66^.2  72^.2  74^.9 

Sacramento,  Cal.,    .   .  53°.2  69°.5  65°.2  71°.7 

May.  June.  July.  August 

York,  Eng 57°.0  6P.2  62J.4  63^.5 

Aberdeen,  Scotland,     .  52°.3  66°.7  68°.8  58° .0 

Epping,  Eng.,  ....  56°.6  60°.0  62°.2  (50°.9 

Dantzic,  Baltic,     .   .   .  52°.l  69°.3  63°.6  62°.9 

Konigsberg,  Baltic, .    .  51°.9  57°.4  62° .6  61°.  7 

Moscow,  Russ.,      .   .   .  54°.4  62°.4  66° .4  63°.l 

Bucharest,  Russ.,     .   .  56°.3  62°.5  68°.  1  65°.2 

Kasan,  Russ.,   ....  51°.5  61°. 3  64°.8  60°.8 

March.  April.  May.  June. 

Beyrout,  Syria,    .   .    .  61°.3  65°.3  7P.3  75°.4 

Alexandria,  Egypt,  .    .  62°.2  67°.0  70°.3  76°.2 

Palermo,  Sicily,   .   .   .  54°.0  68°.6  64°.8  710.2 

Winter  wheat  generally  succeeds  best  when  the 
ground  is  covered  with  snow ;  and  if  this  protection  is 
wanting,  it  is  not  unfrequently  winter  killed.  It  some- 
times happens,  also,  that  a  covering  of  snow  affects  it 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  destroy  it  entirely  or  in  part ;  and 
this  is  the  case  when  the  snow  is  too  compact,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  access  of  air  for  a  considerable  period.  On 
a  clay  soil  the  frost  often  acts  mechanically,  produc- 
ing what  is  called  heaving  by  the  frost.  Other  influ- 
ences of  soil  and  culture  affect  the  growth  of  wheat 
probably  to  a  greater  extent  than  that  of  Indian  corn, 
and  the  same  applies  more  or  less  to  the  other  grains 
mentioned  in  the  second  chapter. 

The  northern  range  of  these  grains,  particularly  that 
of  barley  and  rye,  is  somewhat  greater,  and  the  differ- 
ence may  be  stated  at  about  five  degrees  of  mean  tem- 
perature, which  would  embrace  several  degrees  of  lati- 
tude. Barley  grows  further  north  than  any  other,  but 
both  barley  and  rye  will  endure  cooler  and  shorter 
summers,  and  a  somewhat  poorer  soil. 


264  GROWTH    OF    BARLEY. 

Oats  succeed  rather  better  than  wheat  in  a  moist  and 
cool  climate,  but  will  not  endure  frosts  like  that  plant. 
It  may  be  said,  in  general,  that  these  grains  will  not 
endure  a  mean  temperature  of  less  than  58°  for  the 
growing  months,  in  equable  climates,  and  about  65°  in 
more  variable  ones,  with  freedom  from  frosts  during  a 
month  or  two  previous  to,  and  during  the  time  of,  com- 
ing to  maturity.  Long-continued  periods  of  moisture, 
united  with  heat,  cause  various  diseases,  as  rust,  mil- 
dew, smut;  and  other  similar  injuries. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

SELECTION,  MIXTURE,  AND  SOWING,  OP  GRASS- 
SEEDS. 

IN  general,  too  little  attention  is  paid  to  the  selection 
of  seeds,  not  only  of  the  grasses,  but  of  other  cultivated 
plants.  The  farmer  cannot  be  sure  that  he  has  good 
seed  unless  he  raises  it  for  himself,  or  uses  that  raised 
in  his  neighborhood.  He  too  often  takes  that  which 
has  passed  through  several  hands,  and  whose  origin  he 
cannot  trace.  Bad  or  old  seed  may  thus  be  bought  in 
the  belief  that  it  is  good  and  new,  and  the  seller  himself 
may  not  know  anything  to  the  contrary.  The  buyer, 
in  such  cases,  often  introduces  weeds  which  are  very 
difficult  to  eradicate. 

The  temptation  to  mix  seeds  left  over  from  previous 
years  with  newer  seed  is  very  great,  and  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  it  is  often  done  on  a  large  scale.  In  such 
cases  the  buyer  has  no  remedy.  He  cannot  return  the 
worthless  article,  and  the  repayment  of  the  purchase 
money,  even  if  he  could  enforce  it,  would  be  but  poor 
compensation  for  the  loss  of  a  crop. 

The  seeds  of  some  plants  retain  their  vitality  much 
longer  than  others.  Those  of  the  turnip,  for  instance, 
will  germinate  as  well,  or  nearly  as  well,  at  the  age  of 
four  or  five  years,  as  when  only  one  or  two  years  old ; 
they  are  thought  to  be  better  at  two  years  old  than  one. 
But  the  seeds  of  most  of  the  grasses  are  of  very  little 
23 


266  GERMINATIVE    POWER    OF    SEEDS. 

value  when  they  have  been  kept  two  or  three  years ; 
and  hence  the  importance  of  procuring  new  and  fresh 
seeds,  and  guarding  against  any  mixture  of  the  old  and 
worthless  with  the  new  as  carefully  as  possible. 

It  is  easy  to  tell  whether  the  germinative  power  of 
grass  or  any  other  seed  still  remains,  by  the  following 
simple  method ;  and,  if  the  buyer  should  be  willing  to 
try  it,  he  might  purchase  only  a  small  quantity  at  first, 
and  afterwards  obtain  his  full  supply  with  more  confi- 
dence, if  the  trial  showed  it  to  be  good.  Take  two 
pieces  of  thick  cloth,  moisten  them  with  water,  and 
place  them  one  upon  the  other  in  the  bottom  of  a 
saucer.  Place  any  number  of  seeds  which  it  is  desired 
to  try  upon  the  cloth,  spreading  thin,  so  as  not  to  allow 
them  to  cover  or  touch  each  other.  Cover  them  over 
with  a  third  piece  of  cloth,  similar  to  the  others,  and 
moistened  in  the  same  manner. 

Then  place  the  saucer  in  a  moderately  warm  place. 
Sufficient  water  must  be  turned  on,  from  time  to  time,  to 
keep  the  three  thicknesses  of  cloth  moist,  but  great  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  use  too  much  water,  as  this  would 
destroy  the  seed.  There  should  be  only  enough  to 
moisten  the  cloths,  and  not  enough  to  allow  any  to 
stand  in  the  saucer.  Danger  from  this  source  may  be 
avoided  in  a  great  measure,  however,  by  tipping  up  the 
saucer  so  as  to  permit  any  superfluous  water  in  it  to 
drain  off.  The  cloth  used  for  covering  may  be  gently 
raised  each  day  to  watch  the  progress  of  the  swelling 
or  the  moulding  of  the  seeds.  The  good  seed  will  be 
found  to  swell  gradually,  while  the  old  or  poor  seed, 
which  has  lost  its  germinating  power,  will  become 
mouldy  in  a  very  few  days. 

In  this  way,  also,  any  one  can  judge  whether  old  seed 
is  mixed  with  new.  The  latter  will  germinate  much 
more  quickly  than  the  former.  He  can,  moreover, judge 


SELECTION    AND    MIXTURE.  267 

of  the  quantity  which  he  must  sow,  since  he  can  tell 
whether  a  half,  or  three-fourths,  or  the  whole,  will  be 
likely  to  germinate,  and  can  regulate  his  sowing  accord- 
ingly. The  seeds  of  the  clovers,  if  they  are  new  and 
fresh,  will  show  their  germs  on  the  third  or  fourth  day ; 
other  seeds  will  take  a  little  longer ;  but,  till  they  be- 
come coated  with  mould,  there  is  hope  of  their  germi- 
nating. As  soon  as  the  mould  appears  it  is  decisive, 
and  the  seed  that  moulds  is  worthless. 

It  is  difficult  to  over-estimate  the  importance  to  the 
farmer  of  a  good  selection  and  proper  mixture  of  grass- 
seeds  for  the  various  purposes  of  cultivation,  for  mow- 
ing, for  soiling,  for  permanent  pasturage,  or  for  an 
alternate  crop. 

Doubtless  the  varieties  of  seed  usually  sown  in  this 
country,  consisting  almost  exclusively  of  Timothy  and 
redtop,  with  a  mixture  of  red  clover,  are  among  the 
best  for  our  purposes,  and  their  exclusive  use  is,  in  a 
measure,  sanctioned  by  the  experience  and  practice  of 
our  best  farmers ;  yet  it  would  seem  very  strange, 
indeed,  if  this  vast  family  of  plants,  consisting  of  thou- 
sands of  species  and  varieties,  and  including,  as  already 
intimated,  nearly  a  sixth  part  of  the  whole  vegetable 
kingdom,  could  furnish  no  more  than  two  or  three  truly 
valuable  species. 

When  we  consider,  also,  that  some  species  are  best 
adapted  to  one  locality,  and  others  to  another,  some 
reaching  their  fullest  and  most  perfect  development  on 
clay  soils,  and  some  on  lighter  loams  and  sands,  we  can- 
not but  wonder  that  the  practice  of  sowing  only  Timo- 
thy and  redtop  on  nearly  all  soils,  —  clays,  loams,  and 
sands,  indiscriminately,  —  both  on  high  and  lowland, 
should  have  become  so  prevalent. 

It  is  equally  remarkable  that  while  but  very  few  of 
our  grasses,  and  these  for  the  most  part  species  peculiar 


268  NUMBER    OP    SPECIES    REQUISITE. 

to  sterile  soils,  flourish  alone,  but  nearly  all  do  best  with 
a  mixture  of  several  species,  it  should  so  constantly 
have  been  thought  judicious  to  attempt  to  grow  only  two 
prominent  species  together,  with  merely  an  occasional 
addition  of  an  annual  or  a  biennial  clover,  which  soon 
dies  out.  When  this  course  is  pursued,  unless  the  soil 
is  rich  and  in  good  heart,  the  grass  is  likely  to  grow 
thin  and  far  between,  producing  but  half  or  two-thirds 
of  a  crop ;  whereas,  the  addition  in  the  mixture  of  a 
larger  number  of  species  would  have  secured  a  heavier 
burden,  of  a  better  quality.  These  considerations,  it 
seems  to  me,  indicate  the  true  direction  in  which  the 
farmer  who  wishes  to  "  make  two  spires  of  grass  grow 
where  one  grew  before,"  without  impoverishing  the  soil 
should  turn  his  attention. 

1  hold  this  proposition  to  be  indisputable  :  that  any 
soil  will  yield  a  larger  and  more  nutritious  crop  if  sown 
with  several  kinds  of  nutritious  grasses,  than  when 
sown  with  only  one  or  two  species.  Indeed,  it  is  a  fact 
well  establishedr  by  careful  experiment,  that  a  mixture 
of  only  two  or  three  species  of  grasses  and  clover  will 
produce  a  less  amount  of  hay  than  can  be  obtained  by 
sowing  a  larger  number  of  species  together.  There 
may  be  some  exceptions  to  this  rule,  as  in  cases  where 
the  yield  of  Timothy  and  redtop,  owing  to  the  peculiar 
fitness  of  the  soil  for  them,  is  as  great  as  can  stand  on 
the  ground  on  which  they  grow. 

But  it  is  nevertheless  true,  that  if  we  sow  but  one  kind 
of  grass,  however  abundantly  the  seed  may  be  scattered, 
or  on  whatever  soil  it  may  be,  or  under  however  favor- 
able influences,  only  a  part  of  the  plants  will  flourish ; 
vacant  spaces  will  occur  throughout  the  piece,  which  will 
be  filled  up  after  a  time  by  grasses  of  an  inferior  quality, 
weeds,  or  mosses.  This  is  the  case  in  some  degree, 
also,  where  only  two,  or  a  small  number,  of  species 


FOLLOWING    NATURE.  269 

are  sown ;  while,  if  a  mixture  made  up  of  a  larger  number 
of  kinds  of  seed  is  used,  the  plants  will  cover  the  entire 
surface,  and  produce  a  far  better  quality  of  herbage. 

In  sowing  such  a  mixture  of  several  different  species, 
we  do  but  follow  nature,  who,  after  all,  will  generally  be 
found  to  be  the  best  teacher ;  for,  wherever  we  cast  our 
eyes  over  an  old,  rich,  permanent  pasture,  we  ordinarily 
see  from  fifteen  to  twenty  species  of  grass  or  forage 
plants  growing  in  social  profusion,  and  often  many  more 
species.  If  the  soil  be  very  poor,  as  a  cold,  hard  clay, 
or  a  barren  sand,  perhaps  two  or  three  varieties  will 
suffice  ;  but  on  good  soils  a  larger  number  will  be  found 
to  be  far  more  profitable. 

Especially  is  this  the  case  where  the  land  is  to  be  left 
in  grass  for  some  years,  and  eventually  to  be  pastured, 
as  is  often  done  in  New  England  ;  for  it  is  then  desirable 
to  have  grasses  that  reach  their  maturity  at  different 
times,  as  a  constant  succession  of  good  feed  throughout 
the  season  may  thus  more  surely  be  obtained.  It  is 
well  known  that  there  is  no  month  of  spring  or  summer 
in  which  some  one  of  the  grasses  does  not  attain  to  its 
perfection,  if  we  except  the  month  of  March,  and  even 
this  brings  up  a  luxuriant  growth  in  the  more  southern 
latitudes.  For  good  soils,  eight  or  ten  species  of  the 
grasses,  or  six  or  eight  of  the  grasses  proper,  and  one 
or  more  of  other  herbage  plants,  would  probably  be 
found  to  be  profitable. 

I  am  aware  that  the  prevailing  practice  is  decidedly 
against  the  use  of  anything  but  Timothy,  redtop,  and 
clover,  and  that  very  large  crops  of  these  grasses  are 
often  raised  ;  but  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  we  obtain, 
on  an  average,  less  than  a  ton  to  the  acre,  while,  with 
the  same  culture  and  a  larger  number  of  species,  we 
ought  to  get  double  that  quantity. 

Before   proceeding   to   consider  the   proportions   in 


270  BUYING    BY    WEIGHT. 

which  the  different  species  should  be  mixed,  it  may  be 
well  to  refer  to  the  mode  generally  adopted  for  estimat- 
ing the  quantities  of  seeds  and  their  relative  weight. 
And  I  may  remark  here  that  the  prevailing  practice  of 
buying  and  sowing  grass-seeds  by  measure,  rather  than 
by  weight,  seems  injudicious,  to  say  the  least.  It  is 
well  known  that  old  or  poor  seed  weighs  less  than  that 
which  is  fresh  and  new.  Now,  if  a  farmer  buys  by 
weight,  even  if  he  does  get  an  old  or  inferior  quality 
of  seed,  he  gets  a  much  larger  number  of  seeds,  and 
this  larger  quantity  of  seed  which  he  receives  for  his 
money  may  make  up  for  the  inferior  quality,  and  he 
will  have  a  larger  number  of  seeds  capable  of  germ- 
ination than  he  would  have  if  he  bought  by  measure. 
It  is  to  be  regretted  that  it  has  become  so  nearly  uni- 
versal to  purchase  by  measure,  though,  as  this  course 
is  for  the  seller's  advantage,  it  may  be  difficult  to  change 
the  custom. 

The  following  table,  containing  the  weight  per  bushel 
of  the  seeds  of  the  most  important  agricultural  grasses, 
has  been  prepared  chiefly  from  a  valuable  treatise  on 
the  grasses,  by  the  Messrs.  Lawson,  of  Edinburgh,  who 
have  paid  much  attention  to  this  subject,  and  whose 
experience  and  observation  in  this  department  have 
probably  been  larger  and  more  extensive  than  those 
of  any  other  seedsmen. 

This  table  will  be  found  to  be  exceedingly  valuable 
for  reference. 

Column  1  contains  the  common  names  of  the  grasses. 

Column  2,  the  average  number  of  pounds  in  a  bushel 
of  the  seeds. 

Column  3,  the  average  number  of  seeds  in  an  ounce. 

Column  4  shows  the  depth  of  soil,  in  inches  and  frac- 
tions of  an  inch,  at  which  the  greatest  number  of  seeds 
germinate. 


WEIGHT.  —  DEPTH    OF    COVERING. 


271 


TABLE  XIV.  —  WEIGHT  OF  GRASS-SEEDS,  AND  DEPTH  OF 
COVERING. 


" 

13 

500000 

0  to  i 

i  to   1 

1 

65 

12 

425000 

63 

14 

132  000 

0  to  4 

i  to  1 

5 

76,000 

Otoi 

1  to  It 

2i 

.57 

71  000 

0  to  i 

45 

7 

21,000 

i  to  J 

l£to  U 

4 

Slender  Wheat  Grass,  

10 

15,500 

0  to  J 

ito    } 

2 

Crested  Dog's-tail,    
Orchard  Grass,  
Hard  Fescue,     

26 
12 
10 

28,000 
40,000 
39.000 

Otol 

0  to  J 

Jtol 
|  to  1 

2t 
2t 

.29 

Tall  Fescue,   

14 

20,500 

0  to  $ 

1    to  It 

2i 

62 

Sheep's  Fescue      .... 

64000 

2 

66 

Meadow  Fescue,   

14 

26000 

0  to  J 

J  to  1 

2J 

.60 

Slender  Spiked  Fescue,    
Red  Fescue,   

15 

24,700 
39000 

13 

58  000 

i  to  J 

i  to  1 

2i 

.30 

15 

35 

Meadow  Saft  Grass,  ....... 
Italian  Rye  Grass,  

7 
15 

95,000 

JtoJ 

}tol 

2i 
3j. 

.73 

18  to  30 

50 

Millet  Grass       .... 

Timothy,     

44 

15 

Rough-stalked  Meadow 

" 

~ 

Beach  Grass,     

15 

Yellow  Oat  Grass,    

6J 

Red  Clover,    

" 

" 

65 

60 

Sainfoin,  .... 

26 

10.280 

*  to  1 

•2    r/i  9.J 

AI 

Column  5  shows  the  depth  of  soil,  in  inches  and  frac- 
tions of  an  inch,  at  which  only  one-half  of  the  seeds 
germinated. 

Column  6  shows  the  least  depth  of  soil,  in  inches  or 
fractions  of  an  inch,  at  which  none  of  the  seeds  germ- 
inated. 


272  THE    WEIGHT    VARIES. 

Column  7  shows  the  average  percentage  of  loss  in 
the  weight  of  the  grass,  in  making  into  hay,  when  cut 
in  the  time  of  flowering. 

The  weight  of  seeds  varies,  of  course,  somewhat 
from  that  stated  in  the  above  table,  according  to  their 
quality.  Those  given  in  the  table  are  the  average 
weights  of  good,  merchantable  seed.  In  some  states, 
as  in  Wisconsin,  for  instance,  the  legal  weight  of  Tim- 
othy-seed is  forty-six  pounds  to  the  bushel ;  in  others, 
it  is  forty-four.  The  weight  of  a  bushel  will  depend  in 
part,  of  course,  upon  the  thoroughness  with  which  it  is 
cleaned.  The  seeds  of  the  different  varieties  of  rye 
grass  differ  in  weight,  varying  from  twenty  to  thirty 
pounds  per  bushel;  but  the  average  is  from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  pounds. 

The  number  of  seeds  of  each  species  in  a  pound  may 
be  found,  of  course,  by  multiplying  the  numbers  in  col- 
umn 3  by  sixteen,  the  number  of  ounces  in  a  pound. 
It  is  obvious,  however,  that  these  numbers  must  vary, 
like  the  number  of  pounds  in  a  bushel ;  for  it  is  evident 
that  the  lighter  the  seed,  the  greater  will  be  the  number 
of  seeds  in  a  pound.  The  numbers  stated  are  the 
average  obtained  by  careful  and  repeated  trials,  and 
they  may  be  relied  on  as  the  average  of  well-cleaned 
seed. 

The  results  stated  in  columns  4,  5,  and  6,  were 
obtained  by  careful  experiment,  and  will  be  found  to  be 
very  suggestive. 

The  fact  that  the  soil  used  in  the  experiments  to 
ascertain  the  proper  depth  of  covering  was  kept  moist 
during  the  process  of  germination,  though  freely  ex- 
posed to  the  light,  accounts  for  the  large  number  of 
seeds  germinated  without  any  covering  whatever.  In 
ordinary  field  culture  some  slight  covering  is  desirable  ; 
but  the  figures  in  column  6  show  the  important  fact 


TOO    FEW    SPECIES.  273 

that  in  our  modes  of  sowing  and  covering  there  must 
be  a  great  loss  of  seed  from  burying  too  deep,  though 
the  depth  should  be  governed  somewhat  by  the  nature 
of  the  soil,  as  its  usual  moisture  or  dryness. 

I  have  already  expressed  my  opinion  that  we  limit 
our  mixtures  to  too  few  species,  thus  failing  to  arrive  at 
the  most  profitable  results  ;  and  have  said  that  in  a  piece 
of  land  seeded  with  one  or  two  favorite  grasses  only,  small 
vacant  spaces  will  be  found,  which,  in  the  aggregate,  will 
diminish  very  considerably  the  yield  of  an  acre,  even 
though  they  may  be  so  small  as  not  to  be  perceived. 
It  might  be  thought  that  this  could  be  avoided  by  put- 
ting into  the  ground  a  very  large  number  of  seeds. 
But  a  knowledge  of  the  quantities  of  seed  ordinarily 
used  for  sowing,  and  an  inquiry  as  to  the  number  of 
plants  necessary  to  cover  the  ground  with  a  thick  coat- 
ing of  grass,  will  show  that  this  is  not  the  case. 

I  have  in  my  possession  letters  from  some  of  the 
best  farmers  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  in  which 
they  state  it  to  be  the  prevailing  practice  to  sow  a 
bushel  of  redtop,  a  half-bushel  of  Timothy,  and  from 
four  to  six  pounds  of  red  clover,  to  the  acre.  Some  of 
them  vary  the  proportions  a  little,  as  by  the  use  of  one 
peck  of  Timothy  and  a  larger  quantity  of  clover;  but 
the  general  practice  is  to  use  nearly  the  quantities 
stated,  some  even  using  a  considerably  larger  quantity. 
Now,  if  we  examine  the  table,  we  shall  find  that  in  an 
ounce  of  redtop-seed  there  are  425,000  grains ;  in  a 
pound,  there  are  over  6,000,000  seeds ;  in  a  bushel,  or 
twelve  pounds,  there  are  over  80,000,000  seeds.  Now, 
suppose  the  farmer  takes  only  one  peck  of  Timothy- 
seed  to  mix  with  it.  In  an  ounce  of  Timothy  grass-seed 
there  are  74,000  grains.  In  a  pound  there  are  over 
1,000,000  grains.  In  eleven  pounds,  or  a  peck,  there 
are  over  13,000.000  seeds  ;  and,  if  we  take  but  four 


274 


NUMBER    OF    PLANTS. 


pounds  of  clover,  which  is  below  the  average  quantity 
used,  we  shall  find  by  the  same  process  that  we  have 
over  1,000,000  seeds.  If  now  we  add  these  sums 
together,  we  shall  find  that  we  have  put  upon  the  acre 
no  less  than  95,000,000  seeds  !  This  gives  about  fifteen 
seeds  to  the  square  inch,  or  about  2,000  seeds  to  the 
square  foot ! 

Again,  one  of  the  most  intelligent  farmers  in  the 
country,  a  practical  man,  uses  five  pecks  of  redtop  and 
twelve  quarts  of  Timothy  to  the  acre  for  mowing  lands, 
and  an  addition  of  five  pounds  of  white  clover  for  pas- 
tures, making  no  less  than  124,000,000  seeds  per  acre. 
There  must  be,  evidently,  an  enormous  waste  of  seed, 

TABLE  X.  —  AVERAGE  NUMBER  OF  PLANTS  AND  SPECIES 
TO  THE  SQUARE  FOOT  OF  SWARD. 


CHARACTER    OF   THE  TURF. 

II 

in 

ill 
1°- 

i 

i 

£ 

Clover,  and  other 
plants. 

| 

1.  A  square  foot  taken  from  the  richest  nat- 
ural pasture,  capable  of  fattening  one 
large  ox  or  three  sheep  to  the  acre,  was 

i  nnft 

940 

60 

20 

2.  Rich  old    pasture,    capable  of  fattening 
one  large  ox  and  three  sheep  per  acre,  . 

1,090 
910 

1,032 

880 

58 
80 

12 

4.  An  old  pasture  of  a  damp,  moist,  and 
mossy  surface  

634 

610 

124 

8 

6.  A  good  pasture,  two  years  old,  laid  down 
to  rye  grass  and  white  clover,    .... 
6.  A  sod  of  narrow-leaved  meadow  grass  (Poa 
angustifolia)  ,  six  years  old,    
7.  A  sod  of  meadow  foxtail  by  itself,  six 

470 
192 
80 

452 

18 

2 

1 
1 

75 

1 

9.  Meadow,  irrigated  and  carefully  managed, 

1,798 

1,702 

96 

OLD    PASTURE    SWARD.  275 

or  an  extensive  destruction  of  the  plants ;  for,  if  we  take 
nature  for  our  guide,  we  shall  not  find  anything  like  that 
amount  of  plants  on  an  inch  or  a  foot  of  our  grass  lands. 
Let  us  see,  from  a  very  careful  trial,  how  many  plants 
and  how  many  species  are  to  be  found  in  a  square  foot. 

These  plants,  in  each  instance,  were  counted  with  the 
utmost  care,  by  a  farmer  now  living  in  Massachusetts, 
then  in  the  employ  of  Mr.  Sinclair,  and  the  correctness 
of  his  results  may  be  relied  on. 

Now,  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  sward  of  a  rich 
old  pasture  is  closely  packed,  filled  up,  or  interwoven, 
with  plants,  and  no  vacant  spaces  occur.  Yet  we  see, 
from  the  above  table,  in  a  closely-crowded  turf  of 
such  a  pasture,  only  one  thousand  distinctly-rooted 
plants  were  found  on  a  square  foot,  and  these  were 
made  up  of  twenty  different  species.  They  are  seen  in 
Table  X. 

The  soil  should  be  supplied  with  a  proper  number  of 
plants,  else  a  loss  of  labor,  time,  and  space,  will  be  in- 
curred ;  but,  however  heavily  seeded  a  piece  may  be 
with  one  or  two  favorite  grasses,  small  vacant  spaces 
will  occur,  which,  though  they  may  not  seem  important 
in  themselves,  when  taken  in  the  aggregate  will  be 
found  to  diminish  very  considerably  the  yield  of  an  acre. 
Undoubtedly  some  allowance  should  be  made  for  the 
seeds  and  young  plants  destroyed  by  insects,  birds,  and 
various  accidental  causes  ;  but,  even  after  all  deductions 
for  these,  we  see  that  there  is  no  deficiency  in  the 
quantities  of  seed  used,  and  the  imperfectly  covered 
ground  cannot  be  explained  in  this  way. 

The  above  table  is  also  important  as  an  illustration 
of  the  truth  of  my  general  proposition.  It  shows  that 
in  those  pastures  where  few  species  were  found  to- 
gether, whether  in  old,  natural  pastures  or  in  artificial 
meadows,  the  number  of  plants  on  a  given  space  was 


276  DEMAND    SOON    SUPPLIED. 

proportionally  small.  Sinclair,  too,  who  had  observed 
carefully  and  extensively,  writes  on  this  point,  in  regard 
to  the  practice  of  over-seeding,  as  follows :  "  When  an 
excess  of  grass-seed  is  sown,  the  seeds,  in  general,  all 
vegetate ;  but  the  plants  make  little,  if  any  progress, 
until,  from  the  want  of  nourishment  to  the  roots,  and 
the  confined  space  for  the  growth  of  the  foliage,  a  cer- 
tain number  decay,  and  give  the  requisite  room  to  the 
proper  number  of  plants  ;  and  that  will  be  according  as 
there  are  a  greater  or  less  variety  of  different  species 
of  grasses  combined  in  the  sward." 

It  is  proper  to  make  some  allowance  for  bad  seed,  it 
is  true  ;  but  our  practice  throughout  the  country  is 
defective  and  uneconomical.  In  the  examination  of  the 
rich  and  productive  pasture  turf,  from  twelve  to  twenty 
species  were  found  closely  mixed  together,  and  there 
were  six  or  seven  plants  to  the  square  inch.  We  sow 
seed  enough,  frequently,  for  fifteen  plants  to  the  inch, 
but  rarely  obtain  above  two  or  three,  and  generally 
even  less  than  that,  owing  to  the  limited  number  of 
species. 

The  difficulty  of  procuring  the  seed,  and  its  expense, 
have  been  the  strongest  objections  to  the  use  of  many 
species.  A  demand  for  these  species,  however,  would 
soon  remove  this  difficult}',  and  varieties  would  be  kept 
for  sale  in  every  seed-store  in  the  country,  and  at  a 
reasonable  price.  When  it  is  considered  that  the  addi- 
tional expense  of  sowing  a  field  or  permanent  pasture 
with  a  greater  number  of  species  will  be,  comparatively, 
very  small,  while  the  additional  yield  will  be  propor- 
tionally large,  —  if  the  result  is  as  favorable  as  the 
opinion  of  many  who  have  made  the  trial  would  lead  us 
to  expect, —  every  farmer  must  admit  that  it  is  for  his 
interest  to  try  the  experiment  on  a  small  scale,  at  least. 

It  will  be  evident,  after  a  moment's  reflection,  that 


VARIOUS    MIXTURES.  277 

very  different  mixtures,  both  as  regards  the  species  and 
the  relative  quantities  of  each,  will  be  desirable  for 
different  soils ;  that  different  mixtures  would  be  required 
for  alternate  cropping  or  laying  down  land  for  only  a  year 
or  two,  and  for  permanent  pasture.  In  our  practice  it 
is  most  common  to  seed  down  for  some  years,  and  not 
unfrequently  this  is  done  with  the  design  of  cutting  the 
grass  for  hay  for  a  few  years,  and  then  pasturing  the 
field,  in  which  case  our  seeding  down  assumes  the  char- 
acter of  laying  down  for  permanent  pasturage. 

Equally  good,  but  very  different  mixtures,  might 
be  made,  also,  for  the  same  soils,  by  different  indi- 
viduals who  had  different  objects  in  view,  some  desir- 
ing a  very  early  crop,  some  wishing  to  select  spe- 
cies which  resist  the  access  of  profitless  weeds,  and 
others  to  cultivate  those  varieties  which  exhaust  the 
soil  the  least.  Each  of  these  mixtures  may  be  best 
adapted  to  the  specific  object  of  the  farmer  who  makes 
it,  and,  if  composed  of  a  sufficient  number  of  species, 
may  be  good,  and  truly  economical. 

The  practice  with  many  farmers  has  already  been 
alluded  to  as  consisting  usually  of  one  bushel  or  twelve 
pounds  of  redtop,  a  half  a  bushel  or  twenty-two  pounds 
of  Timothy,  arid  from  four  to  six  or  eight  pounds  of 
clover.  The  practice  of  many  good  farmers  varies  but 
little  from  this  mixture. 

For  a  permanent  pasture  mixture,  it  is  highly  import- 
ant to  bear  in  mind  that  such  species  should  be 
selected  as  blossom  at  different  periods,  in  order  to 
secure,  as  far  as  possible,  a  luxuriant  growth  through 
the  season  ;  and  some  grasses  may  be  used  which  are 
valuable  mainly  for  their  early  growth,  with  less  regard 
to  their  nutritive  value  than  in  mixtures  for  field  culture. 

For  such  a  mixture,  we  might  select  the  following  as 
an  example  : 

24 


278 


MIXTURE    FOR    PERMANENT    PASTURES. 


For  Permanent  Pastures. 

Meadow  Foxtail,       flowering  in  May  and  June,      2  pounds. 


Orchard  Grass, 

in    ••       ••       " 

6 

Sweet-scented  Vernal, 

in  April  and  May, 

1 

Meadow  Fescue, 

in  May  and  June, 

2 

Redtop, 

in  June  and  July, 

2 

Kentucky  Blue  Grass, 

in  May  and  June, 

4 

Italian  Rye  Grass, 

in  June, 

4 

Perennial  Rye  Grass, 

in    " 

6 

Timothy, 

'         in    "      and  July, 

t 

Rough-stalked  Meadow, 

in    "       "      " 

2 

Perennial  Clover, 

in    " 

3 

White  Clover, 

'         from  May  to  Sept., 

5 

40  pounds. 

This  mixture  would  give  the  enormous  number  of 
over  54,000,000  seeds  !  In  an  acre  there  are  6,272,640 
inches,  so  that  the  mixture  would  give  about  eight  seeds 
to  the  square  inch.  We  see,  from  the  preceding  table, 
that  in  an  old,  close  sward  there  were  but  about  1000 
plants  to  the  square  foot,  or,  on  an  average,  about 
seven  plants  to  the  square  inch. 

This  is,  therefore,  a  very  large  and  liberal  seeding, 
and  leaves  a  large  margin  for  worthless  seeds,  for  im- 
perfect sowing,  and  for  destruction  of  plants  by  insects 
and  frost. 

The  weight  of  the  seeds  of  each  of  the  species  of  the 
above  mixture,  together  with  the  period  of  blossoming 
of  each,  will  furnish  a  sufficient  reason  for  the  quantity 
recommended,  and  the  reader  is  referred  to  Table  XIV. 
for  further  explanation. 

A  permanent  pasture  mixture,  recommended  by  the 
Messrs.  Lawson  &  Sons,  very  experienced  seedsmen  of 
Edinburgh,  Scotland,  may  be  worthy  of  study  in  con- 
nection with  the  descriptions  of  the  various  species,  as 
given  in  the  first  chapter.  It  is  as  follows : 


SECOND  PASTURE  MIXTURE.         279 


Second  Mixture  for  Permanent  Pasture. 

Pounds.  |  Pounds. 

Meadow  Foxtail,  ........  2  Perennial  Rye  Grass, 8 

Orchard  Grass, 4  Timothy 3 

Hard  Fescue, 2  |  Wood  Meadow  Grass 2 

Tall  Fescue, 2  :  Rough-stalked  Meadow  Grass,   .   .  2 

Meadow  Fescue, 2  j  Yellow  Oat  Grass 1 

Iledtop, 2  Perennial  Clover, 2 

June  Grass, 2  White  Clover, 5 


Italian  Rye  Grass, 61 


45 


Here  we  have  a  considerable  number  of  species,  and, 
according  to  the  table  on  a  preceding  page,  over  forty- 
five  million  five  hundred  thousand  seeds.  Thus,  though 
we  use  less  than  half  as  many  seeds  as  our  farmers  gen- 
erally do,  we  still  allow  more  than  seven  seeds  to  the 
square  inch,  or  over  one  thousand  seeds  to  the  square 
foot,  a  number  larger  than  the  number  of  plants  found 
in  the  rich  and  closely-woven  sward  of  an  old  pasture, 
as  seen  in  Table  XI.  These,  it  will  be  seen,  even  if  we 
make  a  large  allowance  for  bad  seeds,  will  prpduce  as 
many  plants  as  will  grow  well,  while  we  still  have  by 
far  the  largest  number  of  stalks  of  redtop  from  no  less 
than  three  million  seeds,  though  the  weight  of  the  red- 
top-seed  is  but  two  pounds.  This  mixture  is  designed 
for  one  acre  sown  without  grain  in  the  fall  in  northern 
latitudes,  or  in  the  spring  in  soils  where  spring  sowing 
is  found  to  do  best.  If  any  modification  were  proposed 
in  the  above  mixture,  it  would  be  to  reduce  the  quantity 
of  the  rye  grasses,  or  to  leave  out  the  Italian  rye  grass 
entirely. 

A  mixture  like  the  above  would  answer  very  well, 
'and  is  less  expensive  than  the  following,  though  it  ia 
probable  that  the  greater  original  outlay  for  the  seeds 
recommended  in  the  following  table  will  be  more  than 
returned  in  the  additional  yield. 


280  ECONOMY    OF    PASTURES. 


TJiird  Mixture  for  Permanent  Pasture. 

Pounds. 

Meadow  Foxtail, 2 

Orchard  Grass, 6 

Hard  Fescue 1 

Tall  Fescue 1 

Meadow  Fescue, 2 

Redtop, 3 

June  Grass, 4 

Italian  Rye  Grass, 3 

Perennial  Rye  Grass, 4 


Pounds. 

Timothy, 3 

Wood  Meadow  Grass, 2 

Rough-stalked  Meadow  Grass,   .   .  2 

Yellow  Oat  Grass, 2 

Tall  Oat  Grass 3 

Perennial  Clover, 2 

White  Clover,    .  .   .  5 


If  the  cultivator  desires  to  produce  a  close,  matted 
sward  as  soon  as  possible,  no  broad-leaved  clover  should 
be  used,  and  the  above  mixture  will  be  quite  sufficient 
without  the  perennial  clover. 

Though  the  above  mixtures  contain  so  many  species, 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  actual  number  of  seeds  sown  is 
far  less  than  is  customarily  used  ;  and  for  any  other  use 
than  permanent  pasture  it  is  greater  than  need  be  used, 
since  the  number  of  plants  which  this  would  give  could 
not  grow  and  arrive  at  maturity,  for  want  of  space.  In 
pastures  that  are  fed  down,  the  growth  does  not  usually 
reach  over  five  or  six  inches,  often  not  that ;  so  that  a 
large  number  of  seeds  is  required,  and  that  of  a  large 
number  of  species. 

It  has  already  been  said  that  a  large  number  of  spe- 
cies will  insure  a  much  denser  growth  than  the  same 
number  of  seeds  of  one  or  two  species.  It  may  also 
be  added  that  the  dense  growth  of  many  species  will 
exhaust  the  ground  less,  since  they  live,  to  some 
extent,  upon  different  constituents.  This  is  an  impor- 
tant practical  point,  which  will  in  time  be  appreciated. 
Pasture  feeding  is,  unquestionably,  far  cheaper,  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  than  stall  feeding ;  and  the  com- 
plaint of  exhausted  and  worn-out  pastures  in  the  older 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    PASTURES.  281 

states  is  too  well  founded.  Some  improvement  in  the 
treatment  of  such  lands  is  required,  and  one  most  im- 
portant line  of  experiment,  it  seems  to  me,  will  be 
found  in  the  use  of  a  much  larger  number  of  species  of 
the  grasses,  together  with  such  other  forage  plants  as 
have  been  found  to  add  to  the  richness  of  pastures,  and 
to  their  fattening  qualities  for  stock.  Professor  Low 
recommends  the  following : 

Fourth  Mixture  for  Permanent  Pasture. 


Meadow  Foxtail 31 

Orchard  Grass, A 

Timothy,      5 

Rough-stalked  Meadow  Grass,     .    | 
Meadow  Fescue, 2 


Perennial  Rye  Grass, 12 

Red  Clover 5 

White  Clover 5 

Black  Medic 2 

36 


This  would  give  twelve  million  seven  hundred  and 
fifty-seven  thousand  seeds  to  the  acre  ;  a  much  less 
number  than  those  recommended  in  the  foregoing  mix- 
tures, but  still  a  very  liberal  seeding,  provided  the  seed 
is  sound  and  good.  I  should  prefer  to  add  considera- 
bly to  the  quantity  of  orchard  grass,  somewhat  to  the 
rough-stalked  meadow,  and  two  or  three  pounds  of 
June  or  Kentucky  blue  grass.  A  still  larger  number  of 
species  would  be  desirable ;  and  the  tall  oat  grass,  hard 
fescue,  and  a  small  quantity  of  sweet-scented  vernal, 
would  be  an  improvement. 

A  mixture  is  sometimes  wanted  for  pastures  that  are 
much  shaded  with  trees  ;  and  in  such  cases  those  spe- 
cies should  be  selected  which  do  well  in  such  situations, 
Blossom  at  different  seasons,  so  as  to  give  a  succession 
of  forage,  and  possess,  at  the  same  time,  the  requisite 
amount  of  nutritive  elements.  I  would  suggest  the 
following  as  the 
24* 


282 


ORCHARDS. — SHADED    PASTURES. 


Sixth  Mixture,  for  Permanent  Pastures  muck  shaded 
with  trees. 

Pounds. 

June  Grass, 5 

Orchard  Grass, 6 

Sweet-scented  Vernal, 3 

Hard  Fescue, 2 

Tall  Fescue, 1 

Timothy 3 


Meadow  Foxtail 2 

Wood  Meadow  Grass, 4 

Rough-stalked  Meadow, 6 

Red  Clover, 3 

White  Clover, 5 

40 


If  the  object  be  to  make  a  permanent  lawn,  as  is  fre- 
quently desirable  around  or  in  sight  of  the  farm-house, 
something  like  the  following  mixture  will  generally  be 
found  to  give  satisfactory  results  : 


Permanent  Lawn  Grasses  in  Mixture. 


Meadow  Foxtail,  .... 
Sweet-scented  Vernal  Grass,  ...  1 

Redtop, 2 

Hard  Fescue, 3 

Sheep's  Fescue, 1 


Pounds.  | 

,   .   .  2   Timothy, 


Pounds. 


June  Grass, 4 

Rough- stalked  Meadow  Grass,   .   .  2 

Yellow  Oat  Grass, 1 

Perennial  Clover, 2 


Meadow  Fescue 4   Red  Clover 2 


Red  Fescue,  .... 
Italian  Rye  Grass,  . 
Perennial  Rye  Grass, 


White  Clover, 


44 


This  mixture  will  resist  the  effects  of  our  severe 
droughts  better  than  those  commonly  used  for  lawns. 
If  anything  is  omitted  from  it,  the  red  and  perennial 
clovers,  the  yellow  oat  grass,  and  a  part  of  the  rye 
grass,  could  best  be  spared. 

Red  clover,  like  other  coarse  and  large-leaved  plants, 
rather  mars  the  beauty  of  fine  lawns;  though,  as  it  dis- 
appears mostly  after  the  second  year,  it  may  be  of 
service  in  protecting  the  finer  grasses.  Lawns  kept 
frequently  mown  are  of  most  use  as  furnishing  food  for 


MIXTURES    FOR    LAWNS. 


283 


calves  and  sheep,  and  are  less  adapted  to  supply  the 
wants  of  larger  animals. 

Another  mixture  for  lawns  and  pleasure-grounds, 
which  are  to  be  often  mown,  or  kept  short,  is  recom- 
mended by  Parnell,  as  follows : 

Second  Mixture,  for  Permanent  Lawns  to  be  frequently 
Mown. 

Pounds. 

Crested  Dog's-tail, 11 

Yellow  Oat  Grass, 8 

Hard  Fescue 5 

Wood  Meadow, 4 

June  Grass, 2 


Rough-stalked  Meadow,    . 

Redtop, 

Whitetop, 


Pounds. 

.    .     2 

.   .    4 

.    4 


40 


Lawns  furnished  with  suitable  grasses  become  much 
finer  and  more  velvety,  from  frequent  mowing,  than 
they  otherwise  would  be.  The  Lawson's  mixture,  for 
lawns  frequently  mown,  consists  mainly  of  the  same 
species,  but  in  different  proportions.  It  is  as  follows : 


Third  Mixture,  for  Fine  Lawns  frequently  Mown. 


Pounds. 

Crested  Dog's-tail, 10 

Hard  Fescue, 4 

Slender  Fescue, 2 

Perennial  Rye  Grass 10 

Wood  Meadow  Grass, 2 


Pounds. 
Rough-stalked  Meadow,    ....    1 

Yellow  Oat  Grass 1 

June  Grass, 8 

White  Clover 8 

46 


A  mixture  for  permanent  lawn  pastures,  or  pastures 
lying  in  the  vicinity  of  dwellings  or  public  highways, 
where  the  owner  has  some  regard  to  fineness  and 
beauty  of  herbage,  should,  I  think,  be  composed  of  a 
still  larger  number  of  species. 

The  following  is  suggested  as  most  likely  to  secure 
the  end  desired : 


284 


REGARD  TO  HABIT  OF  GROWTH. 


Permanent  Lawn  Pastures. 

Pounds.  I 

Meadow  Foxtail 3  j  Redtop, 

Sweet-scented  Vernal 2 

Orchard  Grass, 3 

Kard  Fescue 2 

Sheep's  Fescue, 2 

Meadow  Fescue, 2 

Italian  Rye  Grass, 8 

Perennial  Rye  Grass 4 

Timothy, 3 


Pounds. 


June  Grass, 4 

Rough-stalked  Meadow, 8 

Yellow  Oat  Grass, 1 

Red  Clover 2 

Perennial  Red  Clover, 2 

White  Clover 4 

43 


In  all  such  mixtures,  the  early  spring  and  the  late 
autumn  growth,  as  well  as  the  general  luxuriance  of 
the  summer  herbage,  are  to  be  regarded.  Grasses, 
therefore,  which  are  characterized  by  their  early  and 
late  growth,  become  of  great  value  and  importance  in 
the  mixture,  even  though  their  nutritive  qualities  are 
slight,  and  though  they  may  be  comparatively  valueless 
as  field  grasses  to  be  mown  for  hay. 

If  a  larger  number  of  species  can  be  procured  with- 
out too  great  expense,  I  would  suggest  the  importance 
of  experimenting  with  a  still  larger  number  of  species, 
and  smaller  quantities  of  each  ;  such,  for  instance  as  the 
following  : 


Pounds. 
Tall  Oat  Grass,.  ........  H 

Tall  Fescue,     .........  1J 

Meadow  Fescue,     .......  1| 

Meadow  Foxtail  ........  1 

Orchard  Grass,  ........  2 

Hard  Fescue  ..........  1 

Sheep's  Fescue,  ........    £ 

Quaking  Grass,  ........    J 

Comb  Grass,   ......... 


Pounds. 

Sweet-scented  Vernal, 1 

Timothy, i 

June  Grass, 1 

Redtop, i 

Tufted  Hair  Grass i 

Red  Clover, 6 

White  Clover, 3 


If  the  farmer  wishes  to  seed  down  for  only  a  year  or 
two,  and  then  to  break  up  again,  regard  should  be  had 


GEEEN    MANUEING    PLANTS  285 

to  the  habit  of  growth  and  the  kind  of  root  the  grass 
has.  Some  species  require  three  or  four,  and  in  some 
cases  six  years,  to  become  firmly  rooted  and  fixed  in 
the  soil ;  and  they  would,  of  course,  be  unsuited  to 
alternate  husbandry.  Among  them  may  be  named  the 
meadow  foxtail  and  the  June  grass,  and  others  of  a 
similar  character  will  suggest  themselves  in  studying 
Chapter  I. 

Again,  some  grasses  have  but  a  comparatively  slight 
hold  upon  the  soil,  .possessing  few  and  bulbous  roots, 
which,  when  the  soil-  is  -turned  up,  add  but  little  to  the 
richness  of  the  mould;' while  others  strike  deep  roots, 
branching  in  every  direction,  and  fill  the  soil  with  a 
vast  amount  of  vegetable  matter,  and  add  to  its  rich- 
ness in  decaying  by  the  organic  and  inorganic  matter 
which  they  leave  in  it. 

This  explains  why  clover  is  so  valuable  in  alternate 
husbandry,  and  how  it  enriches  the  soil,  by  mellowing 
it  in  striking  its  long  and  deep  roots  into  the  subsoil, 
by  sheltering  it  from  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun,  by 
drawing  much  of  its  nourishment  and  organic  matter 
from  the  atmosphere,  and  corporifying  it,  as  it  were,  so 
that  whether  it  is  turned  under,  if  it  is  ploughed  in 
green,  or  its  stubble  broken  up  to  give  place  to  other 
crops  in  the  rotation,  it  leaves  a  large  amount  of  valua- 
ble matter  to  decay  in  the  soil.  The  importance  of 
producing  a  large  vegetable  mass  for  the  purpose  of 
ploughing  in  green  as  manure  has  already  been  alluded 
to  in  another  connection,  and  such  grasses  and  other 
plants  suggested  as  will  produce  the  greatest  luxuriance 
of  growth,  and  add  most  to  the  vegetable  mould  in  the 
surface  soil.  The  point  is  one  of  vast  practical  impor- 
tance, and  the  practicability  of  a  complete  system  of 
green  manuring  ought  to  be  tested  by  the  most  careful 
experiments. 


286 


DIFFERENCE    OF    CLIMATE. 


The  following  is  the  Lawson's  mixture  for  grasses  in 
the  rotation : 

Mixture  for  Mowing  in  the  Rotation. 


1 

si 
1 

ly 

i 

!§s 

1 

3 

3 

3 

6 

6 

g 

3 

3 

3 

Orchard  Grass  

4 

g 

g 

Timothy,     

11 

9 

9 

2 

4 

2 

4 

4 

37 

37 

37 

As  this  mixture  was  designed  for  use  in  Scotland,  it 
may  be  proper  to  remark  that,  though  the  latitude  of 
Edinburgh  is  55°  57',  while  that  of  Boston  is  but  42° 
21',  yet  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  former  is 
47°. 1  Fahr.,  that  of  the  latter  48°.9,  showing  a  very 
slight  difference.  But  our  summers  are  hotter,  and  we 
are  annually  liable  to  the  most  severe  and  parching 
droughts,  such  as  are  not  often  felt  in  the  moist  climate 
in  Scotland. 

Besides,  the  Italian  rye  grass  is  naturalized  there,  and 
gives  enormous  crops  under  the  rich  cultivation  of  the 
Lothians  and  the  application  of  liquid  manures.  It  has 
not  been  proved  sufficiently  capable  of  withstanding 
our  droughts  to  give  it  so  much  prominence  in  the 
mixture,  though,  as  already  suggested,  it  is  worthy  of 
more  careful  trial  than  it  has  yet  received  in  this  coun- 
try. I  would  suggest  the  following  as  an  improvement 
for  our  purposes : 


MIXTURES    FOR    ORCHARDS. 


287 


Mixture  for  Mowing  in  the  Rotation. 


It 
& 

*!! 

!« 

PI 

:ia 

# 

2 

2 

3 

Italian  Rye  Grass       

3 

4 

g 

g 

« 

g 

g 

g 

Timothy,      

11 

g 

4 

2 

2 

2 

3 

4 

Meadow  Foxtail  .    . 

2 

g 

4 

2 

2 

4 

2 

37 

42 

43 

A  mixture  has  already  been  given  for  pastures  in 
orchards  and  shaded  places,  but  it  frequently  happens, 
especially  in  New  England  farming,  that  the  mowing 
lands  are  studded  with  fruit-trees,  and  a  mixture  is 
often  wanted  adapted  to  such  places.  The  following 
will  be  found  to  do  well  : 


Mixture  for  Hay  in  Orchards  and  Shaded  Places. 


Orchard  Grass, 6 

Hard  Fescue 2 

Tall  Fescue, 2 

Italian  Rye  Grass 3 

Perennial  Rye  Grass, 3 

Timothy, 6 

-Redtop 3 


Wood  Meadow  Grass, 4 

Rough-stalked  Meadow  Grass,   .   .  2 

June  Grass 4 

Perennial  Red  Clover, 3 

White  Clover, 4 


The  above  mixture  will  give  a  great  many  more 
seeds  to  the  acre  than  could  be  expected  to  grow  and 
come  to  maturity  in  shaded  places.  A  large  allowance 


288  MIXTURE    FOB    RECLAIMED    SWAMPS. 

is  made  for  bad  seed ;  but  if  the  purchaser  is  confident 
the  seed  is  good,  from  a  careful  trial  as  recommended  on 
a  previous  page,  two  pounds  may  be  omitted  from  the 
Timothy,  one  from  the  redtop,  and  either  the  Italian  or 
the  perennial  rye  grass  may  be  omitted  altogether. 

The  foregoing  mixtures  are  designed  rather  for  a 
medium,  or  a  good,  well-cultivated  soil.  For  light, 
sandy  soils,  they  should  be  varied  by  the  use  of  such 
grasses  and  proportions  as  have  been  found  to  do  best 
on  such  places.  The  following  will  be  valuable  as  a 

Mixture  for  Mowing  on  Light  Lands. 


Pounds. 

Orchard  Grass, 4 

June  Grass 3 

Hard  Fescue, 3 

Tall  Oat  Grass, 3 

Meadow  Soft  Grass 3 

Redtop, 3 

Italian  Rye  Grass,    .......  4 

Red  Fescue 2 


Pounds. 

Perennial  Rye  Grass, 6 

English  Bent, 2 

Crested  Dog's-tail, 1 

Perennial  Red  Clover, 3 

Black  Medic, 2 

White  Clover 4 

Sainfoin, 2 

45 


In  southern  latitudes  the  mixture  might  perhaps  be 
improved  by  the  use  of  the  gramma  grasses  (Boute- 
loua),  or  by  the  gama  or  sesame  grass  (Tripsacum), 
instead  of  the  perennial  rye  grass.  The  following  is 
suggested  as  a 

Mixture  for  Reclaimed  Peaty  Lands. 

Pounds,  j  Pounds. 

Fiorin, 2   Reed  Canary  Grass, 4 

Redtop, 2   Timothy, 6 

Hard  Fescue, 3  Rough-stalked  Meadow  Grass,    .   .3 

Meadow  Foxtail, 2   Black  Medic 2 

Meadow  Fescue 2   Red  Clover, 4 

Fowl  Meadow, 4 


Italian  Rye  Grass, 4 

Perennial  Rye  Grass 6 


White  Clover 4 

47 


MIXTURE    FOB    GEAVELLY    SOILS. 


289 


These  lands,  when  properly  reclaimed,  constitute  the 
best  part  of  the  farm,  and  not  unfrequently  produce 
luxuriant  crops  of  grass  and  hay,  for  years  in  succes- 
sion, without  apparent  exhaustion. 

Where  they  are  liable  to  occasional  overflows  of  fresh 
water,  or  to  lie  submerged,  as  is  not  unfrequently  the 
case  with  low  lands  along  the  margins  of  streams,  the 
mixture  may  be  varied,  as  follows : 

Marshy  Grounds  liable  to  be  occasionally  over/lowed 
with  Fresh  Water. 


Pounds. 

Fiorin,    .   .    • 4 

English  Bent, 3 

Tall  Fescue, 5 

Slender  Fescue, 2 

Manna  Grass, 5 

Reed  Canary  Grass, 3 


Pounds. 

Timothy, 4 

Redtop 3 

Rough-stalked  Meadow  Grass,    .   .  4 

Fowl  Meadow  Grass, 6 

White  Clover, 3 

42 


If  it  be  desired  to  cover  rocky  and  gravelly  hills  and 
soils  of  a  very  poor  quality  with  grass,  the  mixture  in 
the  following  table  will  be  most  serviceable  : 

Mixture  for  Rocky  or  Gravelly  Hills. 

Pounds.  J  Pounds. 

.  .  .   .  2jTimothy, 6 

.  .  .   .  2|Wood  Meadow  Grass, 3 

.  .  .    .3  June  Grass, 2 

.  .  .  •  3  Rough-stalked  Meadow  Grass,   .   .2 

.  .  .   .  4  Black  Medic, 3 

.  .  .   .  2,White  Clover, 8 


Redtop, 
Tall  Oat, 
Crested  Dog's-tail 
Orchard  Grass 
Red  Fescue, 
Meadow  Soft  Grass, 


Perennial  Rye  Grass,   ......  6  '  "^ 

If  the  soil  be  very  dry,  the  wood  meadow  grass  and 
the  Timothy  may  be  omitted  from  the  above  mixture, 
and  a  larger  quantity  of  June  grass  used.  The  follow- 
ing mixture  is  well  adapted  to  dry,  gravelly  soils,  which 
are  difficult  to  turf  over. 
25 


290  TIME    OF    BLOSSOMING. 

Mixture  for  Dry  Gravels. 


Pounds. 

Creeping  Soft  Grass, 4 

Perennial  Rye  Grass, 6 

June  Grass, 4 

White  Clover, 4 

42 


Finetop 3 

Sweet-scented  Vernal 2 

Tall  Oat  Grass 8 

Sheep's  Fescue, 4 

Red  Fescue, 4 

Meadow  Soft  Grass, 4 

For  protecting  banks  of  rivers  and  streams  from 
washing  and  wearing  away,  the  reed  canary  grass  and 
the  reed  meadow  grass  will  be  found  very  effectual. 
For  preventing  the  drifting  of  light  sand,  beach  grass 
(Ammophila  arundinacea)  is  one  of  the  best.  It  is  ex- 
tensively used  for  this  purpose  at  Provincetown,  and 
various  other  places  along  the  coast.  I  have  sown  the 
seeds  of  other  species  in  such  situations,  but  know  of 
none  equal  to  beach  grass  for  the  purpose  of  fixing 
moving  sands. 

The  following  plants  will  be  found  to  blossom  in  May, 
or  early  in  June : 

Tall  Oat  Grass.  Melic  Grass.  Rough-stalked  Meadow. 

Meadow  Foxtail.  June  Grass.  White  Clover. 

Sweet-scented  VernaL  Italian  Rye  Grass.       Black  Medic. 

The  following  blossom  later  in  June,  and,  in  high  lat- 
itudes, the  time  may  be  extended  to  the  first  of  July  : 

Meadow  Oat  Grass.  Sheep's  Fescue.  Reed  Canary  Grass. 

Yellow  Oat  Red  Fescue.  Orchard  Grass. 

Meadow  Fescue.  Meadow  Soft  Grass.  Red  Clover. 

Manna  Grass.  Perennial  Rye  Grass.  White  Clover. 

The  following  blossom  in  July  generally,  though  the 
time  will,  of  course,  as  in  the  others,  be  governed  some- 
what by  the  latitude  : 

Timothy.  Creeping  Soft  Gross.  Redtop. 

Fiorin.  Tufted  Hair  Grass.  Water  Spear  Grass. 


THE    GENERAL    PRACTICE.  291 

As  already  seen,  the  general  practice  in  New  England 
and  throughout  the  country  is  in  strong  contrast  with 
the  foregoing  tables  of  mixtures  ;  for,  of  the  two  hun- 
dred farmers  heard  from,  all  appear  to  raise  the  same 
species,  but  no  two  recommend  the  same  quantities  for 
mixture,  and  not  one  reports  the  use  of  more  than  two 
species  of  grass,  mixed  with  one  or  sometimes  two 
species  of  clover,  as  at  all  common. 

As  examples  of  the  general  practice  as  reported  to 
me,  and  with  which  I  have  been  familiar  for  many  years, 
the  following  might  be  stated : 

1.  is.  bushel  (6  Ibs.)  red  top,  1  peck  (11  Ibs.)  Timothy,  5  Ibs.  red  clover. 

2.  1  bushel  (12  Ibs.)  redtop,  1  peck  Timothy,  8  Ibs.  red  clover. 

3.  lit  bushels  (18  Ibs.)  redtop,  4  qte.  (5£  Ibs.)  Timothy,  3  Ibs.  red  clover. 

4.  3  pecks  (9  Ibs.)  redtop,  6  quarts  Timothy,  6  Ibs.  clover. 

5.  1  bushel  (12  Ibs.)  redtop,  1  bushel  (44  Ibs.)  Timothy,  10  to  15  Ibs. 

clover. 

6.  1  peck  (3  Ibs.)  redtop,  1  peck  (11  Ibs.)  Timothy,  8  Ibs.  clover. 

7.  4  quarts  (1£  Ibs.)  redtop,   1  peck  (11  Ibs.)  Timothy,    2  quarts  red 

clover,  1  pint  white  clover. 

8.  16  quarts  (6  Ibs.)  redtop,  12  qts.  (16£  Ibs.)  Timothy,  6  Ibs.  clover. 

9.  12  quarts  (16£  Ibs.)  Timothy,  4  Ibs.  clover. 

10.  1  bushel  (12  Ibs.)  redtop,  £  bushel  (22  Ibs.)  Timothy,  10  Ibs.  clover. 

11.  1  peck  redtop,  3  pecks  Timothy,  6  Ibs.  clover. 

12.  3  pecks  redtop,  1  peck  Timothy,  5  Ibs.  clover. 

13.  1  bushel  finetop,  1  peck  Timothy,  8  Ibs.  clover. 

14.  1  bushel  redtop,  1  peck  Timothy,  12  Ibs.  clover. 

15.  16  quarts  redtop,  10  quarts  Timothy,  6  Ibs  clover. 

16.  1  bushel  redtop,  &  bushel  Timothy,  10  Ibs.  clover. 

17.  5  pecks  redtop,  £  bushel  Timothy,  4  Ibs.  clover. 

18.  1  bushel  redtop,  1  peck  Timothy,  8  Ibs.  clover. 

19.  1  peck  redtop,  1  peck  Timothy,  10  Ibs.  clover. 

20.  3  pecks  redtop,  8  to  10  quarts  Timothy,  6  to  8  Ibs.  clover. 

These  mixtures  are  sufficient  to  show  the  exceeding 
diversity  in  our  practice. 

A  little  attention  to  the  weight  of  the  different  seeds 
recommended  in  the  above  tables  will  explain  why  one 
particular  quantity,  which  may  appear  small  at  first 
sight,  is  sufficient  in  some  cases,  as  it  will  show  a  vast 


292  GRASSES    NATURAL    TO    THE    SOIL. 

difference  in  their  weight ;  a  given  number  of  pounds 
of  some  species  containing  many  more  seeds,  and  there- 
fore producing  a  far  larger  number  of  plants  than  an 
equal  weight  of  others. 

There  are  few  points  in  our  practice,  it  seems  to  me, 
where  greater  improvements  could  be  made  than  in  the 
selection  and  mixture  of  our  grass-seeds.  If  the  money 
which  is  now  literally  thrown  away,  by  over-seeding 
with  one  or  two  species,  were  expended  in  procuring 
other  species  and  improving  our  mixtures,  there  is  but 
little  doubt  that  the  aggregate  profit  on  our  grass  crop 
would  be  much  greater  than  it  now  is. 

Some  maintain  that  one  or  two  species  are  sufficient, 
because  certain  grasses  are  "  natural,"  as  they  say,  to 
their  land,  and  come  in  of  themselves.  This  may,  in 
some  cases,  be  true  to  some  extent,  for  such  grasses 
will  come  in,  in  time  ;  but  we  are  liable  to  lose  sight  of 
the  fact  that  the  loss  of  a  full  yield,  in  the  mean  time,  is 
often  very  serious. 

But  the  inference  which  farmers  draw  from  this  fact 
is  not  a  legitimate  one,  for  they  say  that  it  proves  that 
the  grasses  that  come  in  "  naturally."  that  is,  the  wild 
grasses,  are  best  adapted  to  the  soil,  and  will  produce 
more  largely  than  others  in  that  locality.  But  this,  if 
carried  out  to  its  natural  consequences,  would  lead  to 
the  conclusion  that  new  species  of  plants  should  never 
be  introduced  into  any  soil,  because  those  best  suited 
to  it  grow  there  "  naturally,"  —  a  principle  which  no 
man  will  assert. 

On  the  contrary,  one  great  object  of  all  intelligent 
farming  is  to  improve  upon  nature,  and  to  increase  the 
natural  capacities  both  of  the  soil  and  of  the  plants 
which  grow  on  it ;  and  the  introduction  of  new  species 
and  varieties  is  one  of  the  most  effectual  means  of  ac- 
complishing this  end.  Particular  species  of  plants  do 


IMITATION    OF    NATURE.  293 

not  always  spring  up  in  particular  places  because  they 
are  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  soil,  but  often  from  mere 
accident.  Seeds  are  carried  by  the  wind,  or  by  animals 
or  birds,  and,  being  dropped,  produce  plants  on  the  spot 
where  they  fall.  These  plants  again  produce  seeds 
which  fall,  and  in  their  turn  produce  other  plants.  Thus 
a  particular  species  of  grass,  or  any  plant,  may  be  intro- 
duced into  and  fixed  in  a  locality  where  it  has  no  spe- 
cial adaptation  to  the  soil  there,  and  the  most  common 
plants  or  varieties  of  plants  will  be  most  likely  to  spread 
in  this  way.  Hence,  the  mere  fact  that  a  certain  species 
is  very  generally  diffused  in  a  certain  district  does  not, 
by  any  means,  prove  that  it  is  better  suited  to  the  soil 
of  that  district  than  any  other  species,  nor  that  it  will 
be  sure  to  come  in  if  omitted  in  a  mixture  of  grasses 
designed  for  such  a  locality. 

As  already  said,  the  mixture  of  grass-seeds  in  imita- 
tion of  nature,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  good  perma- 
nent fields  or  pastures,  is  of  comparatively  modern 
origin.  It  was,  for  a  long  time  after  this  practice 
commenced,  thought  to  require  a  great  while  to  form 
a  thick  and  good  sward  or  turf,  by  any  artificial  means. 
The  use  of  a  large  and  judiciously  selected  number  of 
species  has  been  found  to  accomplish  this  object  most 
quickly. 

Though  I  have  expressed  myself  with  some  degree 
of  confidence  on  this  subject,  I  would  still  refer  to 
the  importance  of  careful  experiment.  The  outlay  is 
small,  when  compared  with  the  losses  now  sustained 
in  over-seeding  with  too  few  species,  and  from  small 
or  medium  crops ;  and  the  farmer  can  soon  satisfy 
himself  as  to  the  profit  of  more  attention  to  the  mix- 
tures of  grasses. 

More  than  sixty  years  ago,  careful  experiments  were 
25* 


294  TIME    OF    SOWING     GRASSES. 

made,  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  such  information  as 
would  settle  the  question  as  to  the  best  time  of  sowing 
grass-seed,  and  the  practice  of  seeding  down  in  the  fall 
was  then  commenced  by  a  few  individuals.  At  and 
before  that  time,  the  practice  of  sowing  in  the  spring 
was  universal,  and  the  same  custom  has  very  generally 
prevailed  till  within  a  very  few  years.  Both  the  prac- 
tice and  the  opinion  of  the  best  practical  farmers  in  the 
northern  and  eastern  states  have  changed  to  a  consid- 
erable extent,  and  it  is  now  commonly  thought  best  to 
sow  grass-seed  in  the  fall,  early  in  September,  if  possi- 
ble, mixing  no  grain  or  anything  else  with  it,  though 
there  are,  and  always  will  be,  some  cases  where  the 
practice  of  sowing  in  the  spring  with  grain  is  conve- 
nient and  judicious. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is,  in  most  cases,  an 
injury  to  both  crops  to  sow  grain  and  grass-seed  to- 
gether. The  following  statement  of  an  experienced 
and  successful  farmer  will  enable  us  to  comprehend 
how  the  change  was  brought  about,  though  others  had 
tried  the  same  experiment  long  before  him.  "  More 
than  twenty  years  ago,  we  had  several  dry  summers,  in 
the  springs  of  which  I  had  sown  grass-seed  with  rye, 
barley,  and  sometimes  wheat,  and  lost  most  of  my  seed 
by  the  drought.  I  could  scrape  it  up,  the  plants  being 
dead  and  dry,  when  small.  Since  that  time  I  have  uni- 
versally ploughed  after  haying,  and  sowed  Timothy 
grass  and  redtop." 

Other  farmers  probably  experienced  the  same  diffi- 
culty, and  came  to  the  same  conclusion.  Our  seasons 
differ  greatly,  it  is  true,  but  it  is  now  well  understood 
that  we  must  calculate  on  a  drought  in  some  part  of 
the  summer,  and  grass  will  suffer  more  from  drought 
than  from  frost.  Hence  the  propriety  of  fall  sowing. 
There  are  some  localities,  undoubtedly,  where  spring 


PRACTICAL    OPINIONS.  295 

sowing  with  grain  is  best,  on  the  whole,  as  along  the 
coast,  where,  on  account  of  the  proximity  of  the  sea, 
the  ground  is  often  but  slightly  covered  and  protected 
with  snow  ;  yet  even  there  some  farmers  say  it  is  bet- 
ter to  seed  in  August  and  September. 

Few  general  rules  are  of  universal  application,  and 
the  farmer  must  constantly  exercise  sound  judgment  and 
common  sense.  One  practical  farmer,  in  answer  to  the 
circular,  says  :  "  I  prefer  August,  because  I  think  it  less 
liable  to  winter-kill  than  summer-kill.  And  another 
greater  reason  is,  that  in  fall  seeding  I  get  rid  of  a  crop 
of  weeds,  while  in  spring  seeding  my  ground  is  seeded 
with  them."  Another  experienced  farmer  writes  me : 
"  I  rather  prefer  the  last  week  in  August  for  seeding 
down  land.  The  reason  is,  that  we  frequently  have  a 
summer  drought  which  kills  out  the  young  grass  ; "  and 
another  says,  "  When  sown  alone,  I  prefer  from  the  20th 
of  August  to  the  20th  of  September.  If  sown  sooner, 
the  summer  droughts  are  apt  to  injure  the  young  blades; 
if  later,  they  do  not  have  a  chance  to  expand  and  arrive 
at  that  degree  of  maturity  necessary  for  a  good  crop 
the  ensuing  season."  He  says,  also,  that  if,  in  any  case, 
it  is  found  necessary  to  sow  with  grain,  it  should  be  in 
the  spring,  and  not  in  the  fall.  Another  farmer  recom- 
mends "  the  latter  part  of  August  and  the  month  of 
September  for  seeding  down  land  to  grass  for  mowing, 
unless  that  season  should  be  very  dry  ;  in  that  case, 
sow  so  soon  after  a  rain  as  may  be.  I  do  not  think  it 
advisable  to  sow  grass-seed  when  the  earth  is  very  dry, 
as  some  of  it  may,  by  the  moisture  brought  up  in  pre- 
paring the  land,  sprout,  but,  not  having  continued  moist- 
ure to  support  it,  will  wither  away,  while  some  of  the 
lighter  seeds  will,  perhaps,  swell  by  moisture,  but  fail 
to  sprout,  for  a  lack  of  nourishment,  and  consequently 
perish,  while  others  will  be  blown  away  by  the  winds. 


296  PEACTICAL     EXPERIENCE. 

The  plant  from  seed  sown  in  August  or  September,  if 
the  season  is  moist,  will  take  deep  root,  and  be  pre- 
pared to  withstand  the  changes  of  winter.  Grass-seed 
sown  with  grain  in  the  spring  is  liable  to  be  killed  in 
the  hot  days  of  July  and  August,  about  the  time  of 
cutting  the  grain,  particularly  on  light,  sandy,  or  grav- 
elly lands.  Clover  should  be  sown  in  the  spring  as 
soon  as  convenient  after  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground, 
on  land  seeded  down  the  preceding  autumn,  probably, 
rather  than  sooner  in  the  autumn,  as  the  winter  is  often 
too  severe  for  the  tender  roots." 

An  experienced  farmer  writes  as  follows  :  "  On  moist 
land  I  prefer  to  turn  over  the  green  sward,  after  haying, 
with  a  Michigan  plough,  and  seed  in  August,  after 
spreading  on  a  coat  of  manure,  to  give  the  grass  an 
early  start ; "  and  another,  "  I  consider  the  month  of 
August  as  the  best  time  to  seed  down  land  for  mowing, 
with  the  exception  of  clover,  and  that  I  sow  early  in 
spring."  "I  think  August  or  the  early  part  of  Septem- 
ber is  the  best  time  to  seed  down  grass  land,"  says 
another,  "  as  in  the  fall  of  the  year  it  will  get  root,  and 
not  be  burned  up  by  the  sun,  as  it  would  be  in  spring." 
Another  says,  "  I  sow  from  the  middle  of  August  to  the 
middle  of  September.  If  sown  in  spring  with  oats  or 
other  grain,  the  young  grass  is  liable  to  be  summer- 
killed,  either  choked  by  the  ranker  growth  of  the  grain, 
or  scorched  by  the  hot  sun  when  the  grain  is  taken 
off.  If  sown  in  spring  without  grain,  there  is  one  sea- 
son lost." 

A  farmer  on  the  Connecticut  River  states  that  "  if 
the  season  is  not  too  dry,  August  is  a  good  month  to 
seed  for  mowing.  I  have  had  very  good  success  in 
seeding  with  turnips,  or  grass-seed  alone,  in  August  or 
September,  to  mow  the  next  year ;  but  the  usual  prac- 
tice here  is  to  seed  with  wheat  or  rye,  in  September  or 


FALL    AND    SPRING    SOWING.  297 

October.  Some  seed  in  spring  with  oats,  but  generally 
it  does  not  do  well.  Clover  is  more  often  sown  in  the 
spring,  because  it  winter-kills."  Another  says,  "  There 
is  a  difference  of  opinion  among  farmers  in  this  region 
on  this  subject ;  some  prefer  to  sow  the  grass-seed 
with  the  spring  grain  in  May,  while  others  prefer  to 
sow  in  August.  The  latter,  no  doubt,  is  the  best  prac- 
tice, if  the  ground  is  sufficiently  moist." 

But, on  the  other  hand,an  experienced  practical  farmer 
on  the  sea-coast  says,  "  I  prefer  seeding  down  land 
designed  for  mowing  in  April,  for  the  reason  that  if 
sown  in  March  the  ground  becomes  so  compact,  from 
the  effects  of  heavy  rains,  that  the  seed  does  not  come 
up  well,  and  if  sown  in  August  or  September,  the  grass 
does  not  attain  that  degree  of  maturity  to  enable  it  to 
withstand  the  frequent  freezing  and  thawing  of  the  suc- 
ceeding winter.  We  usually  have  but  little  snow  to 
protect  the  young  grass  on  this  island.  The  objection 
to  sowing  grass-seed  after  English  harvest  will  not 
probably  apply  to  those  places  where  the  winters  are 
less  changeable." 

Another  says :  "I  have  sown  grass-seed  in  the  months 
of  March,  April,  May,  August,  September,  and  October. 
On  a  rich,  compact,  retentive  soil,  seed  has  done  well 
sown  in  April  or  May,  but  I  prefer  to  seed  my  land  of 
any  description  in  August,  or  on  a  light  snow  in  March. 
My  reason  is,  that  when  I  have  seeded  my  ground  in 
the  spring,  I  have  sown  rye  or  oats  with  the  grass-seed 
generally  ;  if  not,  a  crop  of  weeds  would  come  up  and 
usurp  the  place  of  the  grasses  and  choke  them  out,  and 
a  hot  and  dry  July  and  August  would  exterminate  what 
escaped  the  oats  and  weeds." 

Thus,  the  opinions  and  practice  of  farmers  are  divided 
on  this  question,  each  one  being  influenced  in  part  by 
the  character  of  his  land  and  his  crops.  But  it  will  be 


298  NO    UNIVERSAL    RULE. 

found  that  no  season  is  without  its  exposure  to  loss ; 
for,  if  we  sow  in  autumn  and  have  an  open  and  severe 
winter,  with  frequent  changes  from  comparatively  warm 
and  thawing  weather  to  excessive  cold,  the  young  grass 
will  be  likely  to  suffer ;  while,  if  we  sow  in  spring  with 
some  kind  of  grain,  as  oats,  barley,  or  rye,  and  have  a 
drought  in  spring  or  summer,  as  we  generally  do,  the 
grass  may  be  injured,  and  may  be  entirely  killed.  No 
invariable  rule  for  all  soils  and  seasons  can  be  given. 
But  the  weight  of  authority  seems  to  fix  upon  early 
autumn  as  the  best  season  to  sow  grass-seed,  sowing 
it  alone,  without  a  grain  crop;  and  the  losses  from  proper 
seeding  down  at  that  season  are  probably  considerably 
less,  in  an  average  of  years,  than  those  which  arise  from 
spring  sowing  with  grain. 

This  does  not,  perhaps,  apply  to  very  strong  clayey 
soils,  which  retain  a  large  amount  of  moisture.  On  such 
soils  the  frost  is  very  liable  to  "  heave  "  the  roots,  and 
unless  they  are  rolled  very  early  in  spring,  which,  on 
such  lands,  is  not  usually  practicable,  the  young  plants 
are  entirely  destroyed.  Such  lands,  it  is  well  known, 
require  thorough  drainage.  They  are  difficult  to  till 
profitably  without  it,  and,  when  once  thoroughly 
drained,  the  same  rule,  as  to  the  time  of  sowing,  would 
apply  to  them,  as  to  medium  soils. 

No  rule  in  regard  to  the  time  of  seeding  down  land, 
which  should  be  found  to  work  best  in  one  latitude, 
would  necessarily  apply  in  a  different  climate,  and  under 
different  circumstances. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

TIME  AND  MODE  OF  CUTTING  GRASS  FOR  HAY. 

HAVING  carefully  selected  and  judiciously  mixed  and 
sown  his  grass-seed  at  a  proper  season,  on  land  properly 
prepared,  the  farmer  may  confidently  hope  to  have  an 
abundant  crop  of  grass  the  following  year,  when  there 
naturally  arises  one  of  the  most  important  questions  in 
the  economy  of  the  farm,  and  that  is  when  to  cut  grass 
to  make  into  hay,  or  at  what  stage  of  its  growth  it  is 
most  valuable  for  that  purpose.  This  is  a  point  on 
which  even  experienced  farmers  differ,  but  the  weight 
of  authority  will  be  found  strongly  for  cutting  at  the 
time  of  flowering. 

Most  practical  farmers,  in  answer  to  this  question, 
say  that  hay  is  sweeter,  and  possesses  more  nutriment, 
when  cut  in  full  blossom,  than  at  any  other  stage.  One 
of  the  most  intelligent  farmers  in  the  country  says  :  "  I 
prefer  to  cut  grass  when  in  blossom,  because  it  will 
make  more  milk  and  more  fat,  and  cattle  prefer  it  to 
that  standing  later.  It  keeps  them  healthy.  I  have  no 
doubt  hay  of  the  same  bulk  weighs  more  if  it  stands  in 
the  field  till  the  seed  forms,  and  for  this  reason  some 
who  sell  most  of  their  hay  let  it  stand."  "  When  de- 
signed for  milch  cows,  store,  or  fattening  animals," 
says  another,  "  I  prefer  to  cut  in  the  blossom,  becaMse 
it  makes  more  milk,  more  growth,  and  more  beef.  For 
working  cattle  and  horses  I  cut  about  six  days  after  the 
pollen  has  fallen,  because  it  does  not  scour  or  loosen 

(299) 


300  PEACTICAL    FACTS. 

the  animal  so  much  as  when  cut  in  the  blossom." 
Another  says  :  "  Next  to  sweet,  fresh  grass,  we  think 
that  rowen  will  make  cows,  working  cattle,  or  horses, 
thrive  better  than  any  other  feed,  unless  in  the  case  of 
cattle  hard  at  work.  We  conclude,  therefore,  that  all 
hay  is  best  cut  early.  Coarse  hay  will  keep  stock  tole- 
rably well,  cut  early,  which,  if  allowed  to  mature, 
would  not  be  eaten  at  all." 

The  testimony  of  another  practical  farmer  on  this 
point  is  as  follows  :  "  We  cut  after  the  blossoms  begin 
to  fall,  and  before  they  have  all  fallen.  It  has  more 
substance  and  weight  cut  at  that  time  than  if  cut 
sooner,  more  sweetness  and  juice  than  if  cut  later." 
Another  farmer  says :  "  Our  rule  is  to  cut  hay  in  the 
blossom,  as  it  is  then  in  the  best  state  for  feeding, —  less 
woody  and  much  sweeter  than  later,  and  leaves  the 
roots  in  better  state  for  a  second,  or  another  annual 
crop."  Another  very  intelligent  practical  farmer  says : 
"  We  cut  in  blossom,  because  it  is  then  most  palatable 
to  stock.  If  allowed  to  stand  much  longer,  there  is  a 
draft  upon  the  soil  for  the  growth  of  the  seed,  which  is 
not  repaid  by  the  additional  value  of  the  hay,  if,  indeed, 
it  is  increased  in  value  at  all.  My  opinion,  derived 
from  my  own  experience,  is,  that  the  grasses  will 
sooner  die  out  if  allowed  to  stand  later."  A  farmer 
who  prefers  to  cut  all  other  grasses  when  in  blossom 
says,  "  It  will  not  do  to  cut  blue  joint  or  fowl  meadow 
till  some  of  the  seeds  fall,  as  it  will  soon  run  them  out." 
An  intelligent  farmer  of  Massachusetts  says,  "  When 
English  grass  is  in  full  blossom  it  has  all  the  good  qual- 
ities it  can  have.  From  that  time  I  think  it  loses  in 
value  in  proportion  to  the  time  which  it  stands.  Swale 
hay  should  be  cut  rather  green.  If  fully  ripe,  it  is  hard 
and  dry."  Another  says :  "  We  cut  about  the  time  the 
blossom  falls.  The  grass  is  then  at  its  full  growth.  If 


THEOBY    AND    PRACTICE.  301 

it  stands  much  longer,  the  leaves  begin  to  die  at  the 
bottom,  and  the  grass  grows  tough  and  hard  ;  and  I 
think  the  longer  it  stands,  the  less  it  will  weigh  when 
dried.  If  it  is  cut  much  earlier,  it  will  shrink  and  dry 
up,  and  does  not  seem  to  have  so  much  nutriment  in  it ; 
and  I  have  noticed  cattle  will  eat  more  in  bulk  than 
when  cut  at  the  right  time."  And  still  another :  "  The 
time  of  cutting  depends  very  much  upon  the  use  you 
wish  to  make  of  it.  If  for  working  oxen  and  horses,  I 
would  let  it  stand  till  a  little  out  of  the  blossom;  but,  if 
to  feed  out  to  new  milch  cows  in  the  winter,  I  would 
prefer  to  cut  it  very  green.  It  is  then  worth,  for  the 
making  of  milk  in  the  winter,  almost  double  that  cut 
later."  One  other  extract  will  suffice.  "  I  cut  my 
red  clover  before  the  heads  begin  to  turn  brown. 
When  the  clover  is  quite  heavy  I  cut  it  when  only  one 
half  of  the  heads  have  blossomed,  because  then  cattle 
will  eat  all  the  stems.  Clover  is  injured  more  by  half, 
when  it  stands  long  after  blossoming,  than  any  other 
kind.  I  find  my  clover  hay  in  the  barn  much  heavier 
when  cut  quite  early." 

These  extracts,  taken  at  random  from  a  large  number 
of  letters  from  practical  farmers,  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  indicate  very  clearly  the  prevailing  practice. 
The  replies  from  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  different 
individuals  show  that  farmers  prefer  to  cut  the  prin- 
cipal grasses,  Timothy  and  redtop,  when  in  full  blos- 
som ;  red  clover,  when  about  half  the  heads  are  in  blos- 
som ;  and  swale  grass,  before  it  is  ripe,  and  generally 
before  blossoming,  if  possible,  so  as  to  prevent  it  from 
becoming  hard  and  wiry. 

'This  practice  is  unquestionably  founded  on  a  correct 
principle,  the  object  of  the  farmer  being  to  secure  his 
hay  so  as  to  make  it  most  like  grass  in  its  perfect  con- 
dition. From  principles  stated  in  another  place,  it  has 
26 


302  PROCESSES    OF    GROWTH. 

been  seen  that  the  nutritive  substances  of  grass  are 
those  which  are,  for  the  most  part,  soluble  in  water, 
such  as  sugar,  gluten,  and  other  compounds.  Now,  it 
is  evident  that,  if  this  is  so,  the  grass  should  be  cut  at 
the  time  when  it  contains  the  largest  amount  of  these 
principles.  In  its  early  stages  of  growth  it  contains  a 
very  large  percentage  of  water.  From  its  earliest 
growth  the  sugar  and  other  soluble  substances  gradu- 
ally increase,  till  they  reach  their  maximum  percentage 
in  the  blossom,  or  when  the  seed  is  fully  formed  in  the 
cell.  From  this  period  the  saccharine  matter  constantly 
diminishes,  and  the  woody  fibre,  perfectly  insoluble  in 
water,  and  innutritions,  increases  till  after  the  seeds 
have  matured,  when  the  plant  begins  to  decay.  Of 
course,  if  the  plant  is  not  cut  in  the  flower,  a  great  part 
of  the  nutriment  of  its  stems  and  leaves  is  wasted. 

There  are,  perhaps,  exceptions  to  this  in  the  natural 
grasses,  as  already  seen  in  considering  their  nutritive 
qualities,  and  in  the  analyses  at  different  periods  of 
their  growth.  Thus,  in  case  of  the  orchard  grass,  Sin- 
clair found  the  nutritive  matter  at  the  time  the  seed 
was  ripe,  and  at  the  time  of  flowering,  as  seven  to  five; 
and  the  stems  of  Timothy  were  found  to  contain  more 
nutritive  matter  when  the  plant  was  ripe  than  at  the 
time  of  flowering,  though  it  was  found  that  the  loss  of 
aftermath,  which  would  have  formed  had  the  plant  been 
cut  in  blossom,  more  than  balanced  the  gain  of  nutritive 
matter  in  the  ripening  of  the  seed.  Most  of  the  grasses, 
too,  make  a  greater  quantity  of  hay  when  cut  at  the 
time  of  blossoming,  though  the  crested  dog's-tail  has 
been  found  to  be  an  exception  to  this  rule.  Fowl 
meadow,  also,  contains  an  equal  quantity  of  produce  at 
the  time  of  ripening  the  seed  and  at  the  time  of  blos- 
soming, and  the  nutritive  matter  at  both  periods  is 
about  the  same.  It  will  be  found  in  practice  generally 


EESULT    OF    OBSERVATIONS.  303 

to  be  better  to  be  a  little  too  early  than  too  late ;  for 
the  gain  is  in  two  directions,  —  in  a  greater  nutritive 
substance  at  the  time  of  blossoming,  which  is  certainly 
a  sufficient  consideration  of  itself,  and  in  the  larger 
growth  of  the  lattermath,  which  will  spring  up  on  good 
land  and  in  a  good  season. 

We  might  also  reason  from  analogy  in  other  plants; 
for  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  best  vegetable  ex- 
tracts for  medicinal  and  other  purposes  are  procured 
from  plants  when  in  blossom.  Prof.  Kirtland,  of  Ohio, 
states  that  an  observing  practical  farmer  of  his 
neighborhood,  after  many  careful  observations  on  the 
growth  of  Timothy,  has  arrived  at  these  propositions : 

1.  That  Timothy  grass  is  a   perennial   plant,  which 
renews  itself  by  an  annual  formation  of  "  bulbs,"  or  per- 
haps, more   correctly   speaking,   tubers,  in  which  the 
vitality  of  the  plant  is  concentrated  during  the  winter. 
These  form  in  whatever  locality  the  plant  is  selected, 
without  reference  to  dryness  or  moisture.     From  these 
proceed  the  stalks  which  support  the  leaves  and  head, 
and  from  the  same  source  spread  out  the  numerous 
fibres  forming  the  true  roots. 

2.  To  insure  a  perfect  development  of  tubers,  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  nutrition  must  bt   assimilated   in  the 
leaves,  and  returned  to  the  base  of  the  plant,  through 
the  stalk. 

3.  As  soon  as  the  process  of  nutrition  is  completed, 
it  becomes  manifest  by  the  appearance  of  a  state  of 
desiccation,  or  dryness,  always  commencing  at  a  point 
directly  above  either  the  first  or  second  joint  of  the 
stem,  near  the  crown  of  the  tuber.    From  this  point  the 
desiccation  gradually  progresses  upwards,  and  the  last 
portion  of  the  stalk  that  yields  up  its  freshness  is  that 
adjoining  the  head.     Coincident  with  the  beginning  of 
this  process  is  the  full  development  of  the  seeds,  and 


304 


GROWTH    OF    TIMOTHY. 


with  its  progress  they  mature.     Its  earliest  appearance 
is  evidence  that  both  the  tubers  and  seeds  have  received 


Fig.  158. 


Fig.  159. 


Fig.  160. 


their  requisite  supplies  of  nutrition,  and  that  neither  the 
stalk  nor  the  leaves  are  longer  necessary  to  aid  them  in 


SUGGESTIVE    CONCLUSIONS.  305 

completing  their  maturity.  A  similar  process  occurs  in 
the  union  just  above  the  crown  of  the  bulb,  indicating 
the  maturity  of  that  organ.  Fig.  159  represents  the 
bulb  fully  developed  and  mature,  from  which  the  stalk 
was  cut,  after  the  nutritive  process  was  completed, 
above  the  point  where  drying  or  desiccation  had 
begun. 

4.  If  the  stalk  be  cut  from  the  tubers  before  this  evi- 
dence of  maturity  has  appeared,  the  necessary  supplies 
of  nutrition  will  be  arrested,  their  proper  growth  will 
cease,  and  an  effort  will  be  made  to  repair  the  injury  by 
sending  out  small,  lateral  tubers,  from  which  weak  and 
unhealthy   stalks  will  proceed,  at  the  expense  of  the 
original  tubers.     This  is  seen  in  Fig.  158.     All  will  ulti- 
mately perish,  either  by  the  droughts  of  autumn  or  the 
cold  of  winter. 

5.  The  tubers,  together  with  one  or  two  of  the  lower 
joints  of  the  stalk,  remain  fresh  and  green  during  the 
winter,  if  left  to  take  their  natural  course  ;  but  if,  by 
any  means,  this  green  portion  be  severed,  at  any  season 
of  the  year,  the  result  will  be  the  death  of  the  plant, 
when  it  will  appear  as  in  Fig.  160. 

From  these  five  propositions  the  following  conclu- 
sions are  drawn : 

1.  That    Timothy  grass   cannot,   under   any    circum- 
stances, be  adapted  for  pasture,  as  the  close  nipping 
of  horses  and  sheep  is  fatal  to  the  tubers,  which  are  also 
extensively  destroyed  by  swine,  if  allowed  to  run  in  the 
pasture. 

2.  That  the  proper  time  for  mowing  Timothy  is  at 
any  time  after  the    process  of   desiccation  has   com- 
menced on  the  stalk,  as  noted  in  the  third  proposition. 
It  is  not  very  essential  whether  it  is  performed  a  week 
earlier  or  later,  provided  it  be  postponed  till  that  evi- 
dence of  maturity  has  become  manifest. 

26* 


306  KILLED    BY    CLOSE    MOWING. 

3.  All  attempts  at  close  shaving  the  sward  should  be 
avoided  while  using  the  scythe,  and  in  gauging  mow- 
ing machines  care  should  be  taken  to  run  them  so  high 
that  they  will  not  cut  the  Timothy  below  the  second 
joint  above  the  tuber. 

I  have  frequently  pulled  up  the  bulbous  roots  of 
Timothy  from  the  stubble,  from  which  a  heavy  crop  had 
been  cut  with  the  scythe,  while  in  flower,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  studying  the  changes  which  were  taking  place 
in  these  tubers,  and  have  found  them  very  similar  to 
those  represented  in  Figs.  159  and  160,  not  only  on 
moist,  damp  soils,  but  also  on  soils  comparatively  dry. 
Any  farmer  can  satisfy  himself  of  the  correctness  of 
these  representations  by  a  little  observation  in  his  own 
fields  ;  and,  as  the  point  is  of  practical  importance,  it  is 
worthy  of  careful  attention. 

The  facts  above  alluded  to  have  fallen  under  the  ob- 
servation of  a  practical  farmer,  who  writes  me  as  fol- 
lows :  "  The  proper  time  to  cut  Timothy  is  after  the 
seed  is  formed,  and  is  full  in  the  milk.  It  will  then  give 
about  twenty  per  cent,  more  weight  than  when  it  is  just 
coming  into  the  blossom,  and  the  cattle  will  eat  twenty 
per  cent,  less  and  keep  on  their  flesh.  And  I  prefer 
also  to  cut  it  at  that  stage  of  its  growth,  on  account  of 
the  roots  being  better  able  to  withstand  the  drought. 
It  should  be  cut  four  inches  from  the  ground,  as  most 
of  the  Timothy  is  killed  by  mowing  close  and  early, 
before  it  has  come  to  maturity.  I  have  kept  Timothy 
thick  and  strong  in  the  land  six  years  by  following  this 
method.  I  have  noticed  that  most  of  it  has  died  out 
by  once  or  twice  close  and  early  mowing,  before  the 
grass  has  come  to  maturity.  If  it  is  dry  weather,  it  is 
sure  to  die  when  so  cut.  I  lost  a  whole  field  of  it  by 
mowing  too  close  and  early,  and  I  consider  the  four 
inches  at  the  bottom  of  coarse  Timothy  of  little  value." 


METHODS    OF    CUTTING.  307 

If  the  seed  is  allowed  to  ripen,  it  exhausts  the  soil 
far  more  than  if  cut  in  the  blossom. 

The  old  methods  of  cutting  grass  for  hay  are  familiar 
to  every  practical  farmer.  The  hay  crop  of  the  coun- 
try must  be  gathered  at  a  season  when  labor  is  to  be 
obtained  with  difficulty,  and  at  even  higher  than  the"* 
usual  high  wages,  and  when  the  weather  is  often  fickle 
and  precarious,  generally  oppressively  hot,  making  the 
task  doubly  irksome  and  wearing.  But,  besides  this, 
many  acres  of  grass  on  our  ordinary  farms  ripen  at 


Fig.  161.    Common  Scythes. 

about  the  same  time,  which,  if  allowed  to  stand  too 
long,  will  decrease  in  quantity  and  value  of  hay  which 
might  otherwise  have  been  made  from  it.  This  last 
consideration  I  regard  as  one  of  the  strongest  reasons 
for  availing  ourselves  of  the  use  of  the  mowing 
machine,  by  which  it  can  be  secured  and  saved  most 
quickly,  easily,  and  cheaply. 

Mowing  with  the  common  scythe  (Fig.  161)  is,  at 
best,  one  of  the  severest  labors  on  the  farm,  notwith- 
standing the  efforts  of  poets  and  other  writers  to  make 
people  believe  it  is  all  fun.  It  calls  into  play  nearly 
every  voluntary  muscle  in  the  body,  requiring  not  only 
the  more  frequent  and  regular  movements  of  these 
muscles,  but,  on  account  of  the  twisting  motion  of  the 


308  HISTORY    OF    MOWING     MACHINES. 

body,  an  unusually  great  exertion  of  muscular  power. 
Nor  does  it  require  any  small  amount  of  skill  to  become 
a  good  mower,  since  it  is  proverbial  that,  unless  the  boy 
becomes  accustomed  to  the  scythe,  and  learns  while 
young,  he  can  never  become  a  skilful  mower. 
*"  That  the  ingenuity  of  man  should  have  been  turned 
into  this  direction,  therefore,  and  studied  to  shorten  and 
lighten  this  severe  operation,  is  not  at  all  strange.  That 
it  should  not  have  been  done  before,  should,  perhaps, 
rather  excite  our  surprise.  The  reaper  has  been  known 
and  used  on  a  limited  scale  for  half  a  century  ;  and,  as 
the  process  of  mowing  by  machinery  is  not  wholly 
unlike  that  of  reaping,  the  one  would  seem  to  have 
been  naturally  suggested  by  the  other. 

The  first  mowing  machine  which  met  with  any  success 
in  this  country  is  believed  to  have  been  that  of  William 
Manning,  of  New  Jersey,  patented  in  1831,  and  which 
met  with  a  limited  success  more  than  twenty  years  ago. 
The  machine  was  furnished  with  the  serrated  or  saw- 
tooth knife,  having  a  vibratory  motion. 

In  1834  appeared  the  Ambler  patent,  simple  in  its 
construction,  with  a  cutter-bar  of  wrought  iron,  and 
a  single  smooth-edged  knife,  operated  by  means  of  a 
crank,  which  gave  it  the  vibratory  motion.  It  was  used 
to  considerable  extent  in  1835  and  1836. 

Another  machine  was  used  to  some  extent  in  1835,  by 
which  the  cutting  was  performed  by  circular  knives, 
fastened  on  the  periphery  of  a  horizontal  wheel,  five 
feet  in  diameter.  The  wheel  was  suspended  on  a  per- 
pendicular iron  shaft,  wrhich  hung  on  a  lever,  by  means 
of  which  the  driver  could  elevate  or  lower  the  knives, 
at  will.  The  motion  was  given  by  gearing  connected 
with  the  wheels  on  which  the  machine  rested.  It  was 
operated  by  two  horses,  and  was  capable  of  mowing 
ten  acres  a  day. 


WHAT    EXPERIMENTS    HAVE    SHOWN.  309 

Wilson's  machine  was  very  successful  in  experiments 
made  in  1837.  It  could  be  operated  by  one  horse  walk- 
ing behind  the  machine.  The  grass  was  so  left  as  not 
to  need  spreading. 

Another  horse-mowing  machine,  that  of  Huzza,  of 
Cincinnati,  met  with  a  limited  success  as  early  as  1836. 

But  it  was  not  till  a  very  recent  date  that  the  ma- 
chine was  constructed  in  a  manner  to  give  confident 
hope  of  its  ultimate  and  perfect  success. 

The  experiments  made  with  mowing  machines  have 
at  least  demonstrated, beyond  a  doubt,  that  grass  can  be 
cut  quickly  and  economically  by  horse  or  ox  power, 
and  the  objections  which  are  most  commonly  made  to 
them  are  such  as  can  easily  be  obviated  by  a  more  per- 
fect manufacture,  and  by  more  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
operator.  It  is,  indeed,  a  mortifying  fact,  that  they  have 
been,  in  many  cases,  very  imperfectly  made ;  and  the 
fact  that  many  now  in  use  have  so  often  got  out  of 
order  has  thrown  doubts  upon  their  utility  as  a  whole, 
and  retarded  their  introduction  very  greatly.  But  this 
difficulty  does  not  arise  from  any  defect  in  the  princi- 
ple of  the  machine,  and  many  failures,  no  doubt,  are  to 
be  ascribed  mainly  to  the  impatience  of  the  operator. 

It  is  not  unfrequently  the  case  that  a  man  purchases 
a  new  machine  or  borrows  one,  and,  on  starting  off 
without  sufficient  care,  finds  himself  brought  to  a  stand, 
with,  perhaps,  a  broken  machine  ;  and,  instead  of  seek- 
ing the  cause,  and  repairing  the  damage,  and  starting 
anew,  throws  it  aside  as  entirely  worthless,  and  con- 
demns the  implement  at  once.  Some  of  our  most  use- 
ful and  now  familiar  farm  implements  have  been  repeat- 
edly thrown  aside,  at  first,  by  the  fault  mainly  of  the 
operator.  A  machine  ought  not  to  be  condemned  till 
after  a  complete  and  full  trial.  But  enough  of  these 
machines  have  succeeded,  to  the  perfect  satisfaction  of 


310  BUYING    CHEAPLY-MADE    TOOLS. 

the  community,  to  show  that,  whatever  defects  some 
of  them  may  have,  they  may  be  made  to  accomplish 
the  work  for  which  they  were  intended. 

The  manufacturer  is  not  alone  to  blame,  as  a  general 
thing,  for  the  defects  of  an  implement  to  be  used  on  the 
farm.  The  farmer  too  often  prefers  a  machine  which 
is  least  expensive,  and  no  matter  how  well  it  is  made, 
he  will  insist  upon  having  it  at  the  lowest  possible 
price  at  which  it  can  be  afforded.  Manufacturers  are 
therefore  compelled  to  slight  the  work  in  order  to  meet 
the  wants  of  the  people,  and  cheaply-made  articles 
alone  can  be  sold  cheap  enough  to  suit  the  wishes  of 
the  buyer.  In  this  way  both  the  manufacturer  and  the 
farmer  suffer.  It  is  poor  economy,  as  a  general  rule,  to 
buy  cheap  articles. 

As  to  the  comparative  economy  of  the  use  of  the 
machine  and  hand  labor  on  small  farms,  it  seems  to  me 
the  experiments  of  the  past  season  throughout  the 
country  have  fully  decided  the  question  in  favor  of  the 
former.  On  this  point,  however,  the  opinions  of  prac- 
tical men  will  be  found  to  differ,  to  some  extent,  though 
the  weight  of  the  testimony  of  those  who  have  had  any 
actual  experience  with  the  machine  will  be  found  to  be 
strongly  in  its  favor.  And  this  is  especially  the  case  of 
those  who  have  been  fortunate  in  obtaining  a  machine 
properly  constructed  and  put  together. 

In  answer  to  the  circular  sent  out  to  obtain  the  opin- 
ions of  practical  farmers  as  to  the  result  of  their  experi- 
ence with  the  use  of  the  machine,  one  writes  me, 
saying:  "As  to  the  economy  of  its  use  in  our  vicinity, 
we  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  one-half  of  the 
expense  is  saved  in  using  the  machine  to  cut  and  spread 
grass,  when  compared  with  the  common  scythe,  to  say 
nothing  of  having  it  done  when  the  weather  is  good 
and  the  grass  in  its  proper  state,  whether  in  blossom 


PRACTICAL    TRIALS.  311 

or  gone  to  seed,  as  the  owner  prefers.  The  horses  that 
we  have  used  from  the  first  weigh  from  ten  to  eleven 
hundred  each.  We  believe  horses  of  the  above  weight 
the  best  adapted  to  all  farm  work,  and,  of  course,  best 
for  mowing,  carting,  and  ploughing.  Were  the  team  for 
mowing  and  nothing  else,  we  should  have  no  objection 
to  their  weighing  more  than  the  above,  provided  they 
were  smart  and  active ;  but  a  slow,  logy  team  is  not  the 
thing ;  for  it  needs  prompt  action  to  start  off  in  good 
shape  and  to  work  well. 

"  We  consider  the  draught  not  heavier  than  that  of 
the  common  plough.  Were  it  used  at  the  same  time  of 
the  year,  our  opinion  is  that  the  team  would  chafe  and 
sweat  quite  as  much.  A  man  on  his  own  farm  would 
have  no  occasion  to  work  his  team  so  as  to  injure  it  in 
the  least,  for  the  reason  that  he  could  mow  more  in  the 
first  half  of  the  day  than  he  could  secure  in  the  afternoon 
of  the  same  or  the  next  day,  with  the  same  team.  We  have 
done  our  mowing,  the  past  season,  with  one  and  the  same 
pair  of  horses,  working  them  from  three  to  seven  hours 
per  day.  The  usual  practice  is  to  mow  in  the  morning 
two  or  three  hours  or  more,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  use 
the  same  team  in  the  afternoon  to  draw  the  hay  to  the 
barn,  which  is  from  one  to  two  miles  distant.  The  speed 
required  to  work  a  machine  to  advantage  is  about  the 
same  as  that  for  a  plough  on  stubble-land,  or  from  two 
and  one-half  to  three  miles  per  hour.  There  is  no  objec- 
tion to  quicker  speed,  however,  in  making  good  work." 

In  a  case  within  my  knowledge,  a  machine  with  a 
cutter-bar  five  feet  in  length,  and  with  horses  weighing 
in  harness  1,968  pounds,  driven  at  a  moderate  speed, 
'only  equal  to  20  rods  a  minute,  or  3|  miles  an  hour,  a 
half-acre,  20  rods  by  4,  with  a  burden  of  2,400  pounds 
of  hay  to  the  acre,  was  cut  in  fourteen  swaths,  an 
average  of  4/sV  feet,  in  eighteen  minutes,  including  the 


312  COMPARATIVE    RESULTS. 

turnings.  This  would  be  2TV<j  miles  the  hour,  including 
the  turnings.  At  this  rate,  1,210  square  feet  of  grass 
were  cut  in  a  minute.  At  the  same  time  a  good  mower 
cut  a  swath  168  feet  long  and  7  feet  wide,  making  1,176 
square  feet,  in  3|  minutes ;  or,  at  the  rate  of  336  square 
feet  in  a  minute,  allowing  no  time  for  rest  or  to  sharpen 
the  scythe.  Now,  allowing  the  machine  no  time  for  rest 
or  turning,  it  cut  a  swath  4/^V  feet  wide  and  20  rods 
long,  equal  to  l,554T3ff  square  feet  in  a  minute,  or  4$& 
times  more  than  a  good  mower  with  a  scythe  in  the 
same  time.  It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  a  man  mow- 
ing with  such  a  competition  and  a  large  number  of 
spectators  would  exert  himself  to  his  utmost,  and  that 
he  could  not  mow  half  a  day  at  the  same  rate ;  and  it  is 
certain  that  he  was  far  better  as  a  mower  than  the 
average  of  farm  laborers,  while  at  the  same  time  it  is 
evident,  from  the  above-named  speed,  that  the  team, 
with  the  machine,  could  work  pretty  steadily. 
•  It  is,  therefore,  fair  to  state  the  comparative  quantity 
cut  by  the  machine,  in  this  experiment,  as  five  times 
greater  than  that  cut  by  the  mower.  That  is  to  say, 
one  man,  a  pair  of  horses,  and  a  machine,  would  cut  as 
much  in  a  half-day  as  five  men,  or  a  pair  of  horses  and 
a  machine  equal  to  four  men.  Now,  as  to  the  work 
performed,  it  was  admitted  by  all  that  the  machine  cut 
much  the  best;  and,  when  it  is  considered  that  with  the 
mowers  one  man  is  required  to  every  five  to  do  the 
spreading,  we  have  to  credit  the  machine  with  another 
man's  labor  in  spreading,  or  a  machine  and  horses  equal 
to  five  men  instead  of  four,  or,  including  the  driver, 
machine,  and  horses,  equal  to  six  men.  This  supposes, 
we  will  say,  a  half-day's  work. 

The  cost  of  the  six  men  for  the  half-day,  in  haying, 
would  be  at  least  four  dollars  and  a  half,  under  ordinary 
circumstances.  The  cost  of  a  driver  would,  at  the  same 


MEN    AND    HORSES.  313 

rate,  be  seventy-five  cents  for  the  half-day.  The  keep 
of  the  horses,  at  seventy-five  cents  per  day,  would  be 
equal  to  thirty-seven  and  one-half  cents,  and,  allowing 
for  the  use  of  the  machine  a  dollar  a  day,  which  is,  per- 
haps, a  fair  charge,  we  have,  for  the  cost  of  machine 
labor,  one  dollar  and  sixty-two  and  one-half  cents, 
instead  of  four  dollars  and  a  half,  or,  adding  a  dollar 
more  for  the  interest  on  cost  of  horses,  and  we  have 
two  dollars  and  sixty-two  and  one-half  cents  to  compare 
with  four  dollars  and  fifty  cents,  the  cost  of  men. 

In  another  instance,  where  a  four-feet  eight-inch  cut- 
ter-bar was  used,  instead  of  five-feet,  the  horses  weighing 
1,820  pounds,  instead  of  1,968,  the  trial  was  made  on 
a  piece  similar  to  the  last,  4  rods  by  20,  having  a  burden 
equal  to  2,700  pounds  of  hay  to  the  acre ;  the  machine 
made  17  swaths,  averaging  3T8o8<j  feet  to  each,  mowing 
the  half-acre  in  19  minutes,  at  a  speed,  including  turn- 
ings, of  SfVfr  miles  an  hour,  cutting  l,146TV?r  square 
feet  of  grass  a  minute,  including  the  turnings.  A  good 
mower,  on  the  same  field,  cut  a  swath  20  rods  or  330 
feet  long  and  6|  feet  wide,  or  2,145  square  feet,  in  7£ 
minutes,  or  286  square  feet  in  a  minute,  allowing  no 
time  for  rest  or  sharpening  the  scythe.  Here  the 
machine  cut  4T§tf  times  as  much  as  the  man ;  or,  allow- 
ing the  machine  no  time  for  rest  or  turning,  it  cut 
1,270TV  square  feet  a  minute,  or  4-$&  times  more  than 
the  man  in  the  same  time.  In  the  first  instance,  4TVfr 
times,  with  the  five-feet  cutter-bar. 

Many  similar  experiments,  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  have  come  within  my  knowledge,  where  the 
results  were  so  nearly  alike  as  to  lead  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  above  is  a  fair  calculation  for  lots  similarly 
situated. 

"  The  gain  in  cutting  the  grass,"  says  an  experienced 
practical  farmer,  "  must  be  apparent  to  all  who  have 
27 


314 


ALLEN'S  MOWING  MACHINE. 


land  smooth  enough  to  work  a  machine  on  ;  and  in  this 
connection  it  may  be  best  to  speak  of  the  horse-rake 
with  the  mower,  as  one  naturally  follows  the  other. 


Our  way  of  getting  hay,  when  the  weather  is  good,  is 
this :  To  cut  and  rake  it  into  the  windrow  the  first  day. 


ECONOMY    OP    MACHINE    LABOR.  315 

The  next,  open  and  turn  it,  if  necessary,  then  rake  it 
and  cart  it. 

"  Now,  one  man  with  a  machine  and  horses,  in  the 
forenoon,  and  one  horse  and  rake  three  hours  after 
dinner,  can  put  five  or  six  acres  of  grass  into  the  wind- 
row every  day,  if  he  chooses,  which  is  as  much  as  ordi- 
nary farmers  in  this  vicinity  wish  to  do,  as  our  hay  has 
to  be  carted  from  one  to  two  miles,  and  that  takes  time. 
How  many  men  will  it  take  to  do  the  same  work?  Any 
one  can  answer  this  to  his  own  satisfaction ;  and,  as 
labor  differs  in  price  in  almost  every  section  of  the 
country,  the  actual  cost  would  vary  somewhat.  But 
here  it  would  take  from  five  to  ten  men  to  do  the  same 
work,  varying  as  the  burden  of  grass  does  per  acre ;  for 
in  lodged  grass  ten  would  hardly  do. 

"  Then  the  advantage  of  having  it  done  in  good 
weather,  and  cutting  the  grass  when  he  chooses, 
whether  in  blossom  or  after  it  is  fully  ripe,  I  think 
can  be  safely  put  down  at  ten  per  cent.,  and  some 
call  it  as  high  as  twenty  per  cent." 

From  what  has  already  been  said,  and  from  the  tes- 
timony of  many  practical  farmers,  it  appears  that  the  esti- 
mate which  has  been  made,  requiring  five  men  to  do  the 
work  of  one  man,  machine,  and  team,  or  six  men,  includ- 
ing the  spreading,  is  a  very  reasonable  one,  since,  in 
the  cases  stated,  no  allowance  is  made  for  the  want  of 
endurance  of  the  men  at  the  rate  at  which  they  worked 
in  the  experiments  named. 

Other  considerations  give  further  credit  to  the 
machine,  since  the  grass  was  mown  better  than  the 
^average  of  good  mowers,  while  it  is  easy  to  see  that  it 
was  spread  better  by  the  machine,  thus  making  a  saving 
in  the  quality  of  the  hay  cured. 

The  cost  of  a  man,  machine,  and  horses,  for  a  day, 
according  to  what  has  been  said,  would  be  not  far  from 


316  THE    LESSONS    TAUGHT. 

four  dollars  and  fifty  cents,  while  the  coat  of  their 
equivalent  in  men  would  be  not  far  from  nine  dollars. 
This  calculation  is  based  on  the  cost  of  keeping  the 
team  and  price  of  labor  on  small  farms,  and  it  seems  to 
show  the  economy  of  machine  labor  there.  How  much 
more  valuable  may  it  not  be  on  the  large  farms  of  the 
Middle  and  Western  States  ? 

But,  with  regard  to  the  economy  of  the  use  of  the 
machine,  it  seems  to  me  that,  even  if  the  cost  per  acre 
were  the  same  as  by  hand  labor,  —  and  all  unite  in 
putting  it  less,  —  we  should,  nevertheless,  consider  it  a 
great  and  clear  gain  to  have  it  in  our  power  to  substi- 
tute machinery  which  will  cut  grass  well  and  rapidly 
at  a  time  when  labor  is  very  difficult  to  obtain,  with- 
out paying  an  exorbitant  price  for  it.  And  even  sup- 
posing the  money  cost  of  hand  and  horse  labor  to  be 
the  same,  there  is  still  this  further  consideration  in 
favor  of  the  machine,  that,  as  a  general  rule,  every 
mechanical  operation  which  can  be  effected  at  all  by 
machinery  will  be  performed  more  accurately,  more 
uniformly,  and  therefore  more  economically,  than  by 
hand  labor. 

Among  the  important  lessons  taught  us  by  the  use 
of  the  machine  is,  that  the  fewer  division  fences  on  the 
farm  the  better.  It  has  been  the  custom,  from  time  im- 
memorial, in  some  parts  of  the  country,  to  dispose  of 
the  stones  turned  out  by  the  plough  in  ugly-looking 
stone  walls,  which  mar  the  beauty  of  the  farm,  and 
occupy  much  land  which  is  now  thought  to  be  worth 
something  for  the  purposes  of  cultivation.  The  idea 
was  to  have  a  frequent  change  of  pasturage  for  cattle, 
rather  than  to  allow  them  to  range  over  a  wide  extent, 
without  much  confinement.  This  minute  subdivision 
of  farms  is  a  great  impediment  to  the  economical  use 
of  machinery,  and  even  of  animal  power  to  any  great 


MANNY'S  MOWING  MACHINE. 


317 


extent ;  and  many  an  old  wall  which  was  built  fifty  or  a 
hundred  years  ago,  and  has  come  to  occupy  twice  or 


three  times  the  space  originally  allotted  to  it,  is  now 
being  removed  and  buried  beneath  the  surface,  or  other- 
27* 


318  ADAPTATION    TO    CIRCUMSTANCES. 

wise  disposed  of.  With  small  lots,  the  farmer  loses  the 
time  of  turning  at  every  furrow  in  ploughing,  and  other 
operations  of  a  similar  nature,  like  the  use  of  the  mow- 
ing machine  and  the  horse-rake.  There  is  one  advan- 
tage, however,  of  no  small  importance,  in  these  division 
fences,  and  that  is  the  protection  which  they  aiford  to 
the  field  in  breaking  the  fierce  winds,  in  arresting  leaves 
and  dust,  which  settle  upon  and  fertilize  the  soil. 

Another  important  lesson  taught  us  by  the  use  of  the 
machine  is,  that  the  stouter  the  grass  is,  —  other  things 
being  equal,  —  the  more  easily  and  economically  it 
can  be  mown ;  and  hence  the  importance  of  a  high  and 
thorough  cultivation  of  all  grass  lands,  not  simply  in 
the  clearing  away  of  stones,  stumps,  or  other  obstruc- 
tions, which  the  use  of  the  machine  will  lead  to,  but  in 
the  use  of  more  manure,  and  the  more  complete  and 
thorough  tillage  with  the  plough,  the  harrow,  and  the 
roller.  Many  farmers  have  already  taken  the  hint,  and 
are  preparing  their  lands  with  reference  to  some  future 
use  of  a  mowing  machine. 

But  the  experiments  thus  far  made  establish  con- 
clusively that  the  machine  can  be  used  in  a  far  greater 
variety  of  circumstances  than  was  at  first  supposed. 
I  have  seen  it  operate  safely  and  advantageously  on 
rough  lands  covered  with  stones,  on  hilly  and  broken 
surfaces,  reclaimed  bogs  and  salt  marshes,  with  two 
horses,  with  one  horse,  and  with  oxen,  and  with  fewer 
accidents  than  might  reasonably  have  been  anticipated 
under  the  circumstances  of  a  new  implement,  and  want 
of  experience  and  skill  incident  to  the  introduction  of 
machinery.  It  is,  nevertheless,  true  that  it  will  prove 
to  be  a  great  saving,  in  the  end,  to  put  the  field  in  good 
condition,  have  it  free  from  stones  and  all  other  ob- 
structions; and  some  doubt  whether  it  is  economical  to 
buy  and  use  a  machine  till  this  state  of  cultivation  is 


TIME    PER    ACRE.  319 

attained,  or  at  least  till  an  approximation  is  made  to 
thorough  tillage. 

The  average  time  required  is  about  forty-five  minutes 
per  acre.  I  have  known  eight  acres,  yielding  sixteen 
tons  of  hay,  to  be  cut  in  three  hours  and  forty  minutes, 
or  at  an  average  rate  of  twenty-seven  minutes  per  acre. 
After  making  all  necessary  allowance  for  stoppages  to 
rest  the  team,  and  occasionally  to  repair  the  machine, 
we  may  reasonably  estimate  the  work  which  could  be 
done,  without  over-urging,  at  an  acre  per  hour. 

As  to  the  power  required,  all  the  reports  concur  in 
saying  that  there  is  less  labor  for  the  horses  than  in 
ploughing.^  In  most  cases  the  horses  actually  gained  in 
weight  while  they  worked  with  the  machine.  This  is 
the  testimony,  not  only  of  competitors,  but  also  of  com- 
mittees of  various  agricultural  societies.  One  of  these 
committees  says,  "  The  team  used  may  be  called  a  fair 
average  of  farm-horses,  the  pair  weighing  about  two 
thousand  pounds.  They  required  no  urging,  so  far  as 
we  could  observe,  but  performed  their  daily  work  on 
the  machine  with  ease,  and,  could  they  give  an  opinion, 
your  committee  have  no  doubt  they  would  consider 
mowing  the  most  agreeable  part  of  the  harvest  labor." 

It  is  also  the  opinion  of  most  who  have  used  the 
machine  that  horses  of  medium  size,  say  from  nine  to 
ten  hundred  pounds  in  weight,  do  their  work,  on  the 
whole,  with  greater  ease  and  safety  than  larger  ones. 
Tliis  is  especially  the  case  on  soft  or  wet  ground. 

Much  observation  leads  to  the  belief  that,  at  the  rate 
of  an  acre  per  hour,  including  all  ordinary  stops,  a  good 
j>air  of  horses  could  continue  the  work  so  as  to  cut, 
without  undue  exertion,  from  ten  to  twelve  acres  a 
day. 

Many  think  it  to  be  far  more  economical  to  use  oxen 
than  horses  on  small  farms,  and  hence  many  farmers 


320  PRACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS. 

prefer  the  former  to  the  latter.  In  many  cases  where 
the  mowing  machine  has  been  worked  by  oxen  they  did 
as  well  as  horses,  while  they  did  not  apparently  suffer 
from  the  exertion,  even  in  the  hot  weather  of  July. 
This  fact  will  make  it  possible  for  many  to  use  this 
implement  who  could  not  otherwise  do  so,  and  its 
advantages  will  thus  be  brought  within  the  reach  of 
thousands  who  cannot  afford  to  use  horses. 

There  are  some  general  suggestions  for  beginners  in 
the  use  of  the  mowing  machine,  most  of  which  are 
alluded  to  in  the  letters  of  practical  farmers  already 
quoted,  but  which  may  be  briefly  summed  up  as  fol- 
lows : 

1st.  See  that  the  knives  are  sharp,  and  in  good 
order.  No  man  would  think  of  beginning  his  day's 
work  of  mowing  without  having  first  ground  his  scythe. 
A  dull  scythe  requires  too  great  an  expenditure  of 
physical  force,  and  the  mower  works  to  great  disadvan- 
tage. The  same  is  true  of  the  machine.  The  labor  for 
the  team  is  quite  sufficient,  even  under  the  most  favor- 
able circumstances,  without  increasing  it  by  neglect  in 
this  particular. 

2d.  See  that  every  nut  and  bolt  is  perfectly  tight ; 
the  wear  of  the  machine  will  be  less,  and  it  will  be  less 
likely  to  get  out  of  order. 

3d.  Keep  all  the  bearings  well  oiled  with  pure 
sperm  oil ;  some  of  them  will  need  an  application  of  it 
every  ten  or  fifteen  minutes. 

4th.  Take  the  field  lengthwise,  and  keep  straight 
forward,  at  a  regular,  steady  pace,  without  too  great 
haste,  which  would  fret  and  worry  the  team.  An  acre 
per  hour  is  fast  enough  ordinarily,  and  the  team 
will  do  that  without  over-urging,  if  the  driver  be 
skilful. 

Other  things,  of  minor  importance,  will  suggest  them- 


SKILL    REQUIRED    BY    THE    SCYTHE.  321 

selves  after  a  little  practice.  But  it  is  especially  import- 
ant to  have  patience  and  perseverance,  and  not  to  give 
up  in  discouragement  on  account  of  a  failure  at  the 
outset,  nor  even  if  there  should  be  a  second  or  a  third 
mishap ;  for,  if  proper  care  was  taken  in  selecting  the 
machine,  these  difficulties  show  either  the  want  of  suffi- 
cient study  of  all  its  parts,  or  some  mistake  in  putting  it 
together.  Many  will  give  up,  in  despair,  if  they  have 
met  only  with  some  one  of  the  slight  accidents  to  which 
every  new  implement  is  liable,  particularly  when  time 
presses  and  things  go  wrong. 

That  some  degree  of  skill  is  necessary  for  the  proper 
use  of  the  mowing  machine,  is  no  objection  to  it,  since 
even  the  common  scythe  requires  skill,  and  it  is  rare 
that  any  man  who  has  failed  to  obtain  that  skill  by 
practice,  when  young,  ever  becomes  a  good  mower.  If 
the  machine  were  so  complicated  that  only  a  mechanic 
could  operate  it,  no  doubt  the  fact  that  it  was  so  would 
be  a  serious  obstacle  to  its  introduction.  But  this  is 
not  the  case,  and  it  is  the  general  testimony  that  any 
farmer  of  ordinary  capacity  can  very  soon  learn  to 
work  it  successfully. 

What  has  been  said  of  the  mowing  machine  applies 
with  equal  force  to  the  reaper,  into  which  the  former 
may  be  easily  converted. 

Many  of  our  grain  crops,  like  wheat,  barley,  nnd  oats, 
come  to  their  maturity  at  nearly  the  same  time.  Some 
varieties  of  oats  are  very  easily  shaken  out,  and  never 
should  be  allowed  to  become  over-ripe ;  wheat  is  very 
liable  to  sprout  in  moist  weather,  and  barley  to  become 
discolored,  if  allowed  to  stand  too  long.  The  work  of 
"harvesting  by  the  old  methods  was  necessarily  pro- 
tracted. Previous  to  the  introduction  of  the  reaper, 
very  large  quantities  of  our  most  valuable  grains  were 
annually  lost,  from  the  impossibility  of  harvesting 


322  THE    SICKLE. — THE    REAPER. 

them  properly  and  in  time.  It  is  not  too  much  to  pay 
that  the  successful  introduction  of  the  reaper  into  Dia- 
gram-fields has  added  many  millions  of  dollars  to  the 
value  of  our  annual  harvest,  not  only  by  enabling  us  to 
secure  the  whole  product  of  all  that  was  before  planted, 
but  also  by  making  it  possible  for  the  farmer  to  increase 
the  area  of  his  cultivated  fields,  with  a  certainty  of 
being  able  to  gather  in  his  whole  crop. 

The  sickle  is  undoubtedly  as  old  as  the  days  of  Tubal 
Cain,  and  was  almost  universally  used  till  within  the 
memory  of  men  still  living.  No  one,  who  has  had  a 
practical  experience  of  its  use,  can  fail  to  appreciate 
the  immense  saving  of  slow  and  wearisome  hand 
labor  by  the  use  of  the  reaper. 

The  reaper  is  no  new  thing  in  point  of  fact.  It 
would,  indeed,  have  been  an  astonishing  evidence  of 
stupidity  on  the  part  of  the  ancients,  who  relied  mainly 
upon  wheat  and  the  other  small  grains,  had  they  not,  at 
least,  tried  to  replace  the  sickle  by  something  better. 
This  they  did.  They  were  accustomed  to  use  a  simple 
reaper  in  France,  a  few  years  after  Christ ;  for  Pliny 
asserts  that  the  inhabitants  of  that  country  fixed  a 
series  of  knives  into  the  tail-end  of  a  cart,  and  this, 
being  propelled  through  the  grain,  clipped  off  the  ears 
or  heads,  and  thus  it  was  harvested. 

In  England  the  importance  of  adopting  some  method 
to  shorten  the  labor  of  harvesting  grain  was  early  seen, 
and  efforts  were  made  to  accomplish  this  end  at  the 
close  of  the  last,  and  the  beginning  of  this  century. 
The  first  patent  granted  for  a  reaping  machine  was  that 
to  Boyce,  of  London,  in  1799.  Then  followed  the 
patent  of  Meares  in  1800,  that  of  Plucknett  in  1805, 
and  that  of  Gumming  in  1811,  clearly  foreshadowing 
some  of  the  useful  improvements  of  subsequent  patents. 
Smith,  of  Deanston,  Scotland,  invented  a  machine  in 


THEATRICAL  EXPERIMENT.         323 

1812,  which,  with  some  improvements,  worked  success- 
full}7,  though  it  had  only  a  local  reputation  till  1835, 
when  it  was  used  before  the  Highland  and  Agricultural 
Society.  The  next  model  was  produced  by  Dobbs,  on 
the  stage  of  the  Birmingham  theatre,  in  1814.  The  hand- 
bills posted  in  the  streets  stated  that  the  performance 
was  for  the  "  Benefit  of  Mr.  Dobbs."  —  "  J.  Dobbs  re- 
spectfully informs  his  friends  and  the  public  that,  hav- 
ing invented  a  machine  to  expedite  the  reaping  of  grain, 
&c.,and  having  been  unable  to  obtain  a  patent  until  too 
late  to  give  it  a  general  inspection  in  the  field  with 
safety,  he  is  induced  to  take  advantage  of  his  theatrical 
profession,  and  make  it  known  to  his  friends,  who  have 
been  anxious  to  see  it,  through  that  medium.  Part  of 
the  stage  will  be  planted  with  wheat  that  the  machine 
has  cut  and  gathered  where  it  grew,  and  the  machine 
worked  exactly  as  in  the  field."  The  Birmingham 
Gazette,  shortly  after,  said  the  "  first  experiment  was 
completely  successful." 

In  1822  another  machine  was  brought  before  the 
public,  and  several  of  the  successful  reapers  of  a  later 
date  were  modelled  after  it.  Bell,  of  Scotland,  obtained 
a  prize  for  a  reaper  as  early  as  1829.  This  machine 
remained  in  comparative  obscurity  till  the  World's  Pair, 
in  1851,  when  the  success  of  the  American  machines 
again  stimulated  the  inventor  to  come  forward  as  a 
competitor.  Previous  to  1851  Bell's  machine  had 
never  been  in  general  use,  though  used  to  a  limited 
extent  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  inventor.  Its  great 
weight,  and  other  defects,  made  it  difficult  to  use  for 
reaping  in  the  field. 

In  the  mean  time,  Schuebley,  of  Maryland,  invented 
a  machine  thirty  years  ago,  on  which  a  patent  was 
granted  in  1833,  the  same  year  in  which  Obed  Hussey, 
of  Baltimore,  obtained  a  patent  on  a  reaper,  which  has 


324      AMERICAN  REAPERS  IN  FRANCE. 

not  only  been  extensively  and  successfully  used,  from 
that  time  to  this,  through  the  Western  States,  but  which 
has  furnished  the  basis  for  the  most  successi'ul  models 
in  this  country,  among  the  most  noted  of  which  are 
those  of  McCormick,  of  Virginia,  Ketchum,  of  New 
York,  and  Manny  and  Atkins,  of  Illinois. 

The  American  reaping  machines,  some  of  which  have 
been  extensively  used  for  the  last  twenty  years,  have  a 
world-wide  reputation,  and  a  generally-acknowledged 
superiority,  and  the  credit  of  having  made  the  prin- 
ciple which  the  English  and  Scotch  had  invented  prac- 
tically useful  undoubtedly  belongs  to  our  ingenious 
mechanics. 

It  is  not  my  province  to  specify  which  of  the  machines 
lately  patented  is,  on  the  whole,  the  best,  or  to  point 
out  the  parts  in  which  each  excels  the  others.  Every 
farmer  has  the  means,  in  the  reports  of  the  various  com- 
mittees appointed  to  determine  the  relative  merits  of 
the  machines  now  in  use,  of  forming  a  tolerably  correct 
conclusion  in  regard  to  these  matters.  The  trial  made 
under  the  direction  of  the  Industrial  Exhibition  at  Paris 
is  still  fresh  in  the  minds  of  many. 

This  took  place  on  a  field  of  oats,  about  forty  miles 
from  the  city,  each  machine  having  about  one  acre  to 
cut.  Three  machines  were  entered  for  the  first  trial, 
one  American,  one  English,  and  a  third  from  Algiers, 
all  at  the  same  time  raking  as  well  as  cutting.  The 
American  machine  did  its  work  in  twenty-two  minutes, 
the  English  in  sixty-six,  the  Algerian  in  seventy-two. 
At  a  subsequent  trial  on  the  same  piece,  when  three 
other  patents  were  entered,  of  American,  English,  and 
French  manufacture,  respectively,  the  American  machine 
cut  its  acre  in  twenty-two  minutes,  while  the  two  others 
failed.  The  successful  competitor  on  this  occasion  "did 
its  work  in  the  most  exquisite  manner,"  says  a  French 


MATERIALS    USED.  325 

journal,  "  not  leaving  a  single  stalk  ungathered  ;  and  it 
discharged  the  grain  in  the  most  perfect  shape,  as  if 
placed  by  hand,  for  the  binders.  It  finished  its  piece 
most  gloriously." 

The  contest  was  finally  so  narrowed  down  that  it 
was  confined  to  three  machines,  —  all  American.  One 
of  these  now  gave  out,  leaving  but  two  to  strive  for 
the  prize. 

The  machines  were  afterwards  converted  from  reap- 
ers into  mowers,  one  making  the  change  in  one  minute, 
the  other  in  twenty.  Both  performed  their  task  to  the 
astonishment  and  satisfaction  of  a  large  concourse  of 
spectators,  and  the  jurors  themselves  could  not  restrain 
their  enthusiasm,  but  cried  out,  "  Good,  good,  well 
done  ! "  while  the  people  hurrahed  for  the  American 
reaper,  crying  out,  "  That 's  the  machine,  that  }s  the 
machine  ! "  "  All  the  laurels,"  says  the  report  of  a 
French  journal,  "we  are  free  to  confess,  have  been 
gloriously  won  by  Americans ;  and  this  achievement 
cannot  be  looked  upon  with  indifference,  as  it  but 
plainly  foreshadows  the  ultimate  destiny  of  the  New 
World  ! " 

With  respect  to  the  materials  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  reapers  and  mowers,  particularly  the  latter, 
there  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether  the  frame 
should  be  of  wood  or  of  iron.  The  weight  of  opinion 
seems  to  be  that  for  all  practical  purposes  wood  is  the 
better  material.  The  iron  cutter-bar  has  been  tried  to 
some  extent,  but  not  sufficiently  to  lead  to  its  adoption 
in  all  cases.  But,  that  the  materials  of  which  these  im- 
plements are  constructed  should  be  far  better  than  they 
have  generally  been,  there  can  be  no  question.  Many 
of  the  bolts  in  some  of  the  machines  have  been  made, 
apparently,  of  a  poor  quality  of  iron,  while  they  should, 
perhaps,  have  been  made  of  steel,  and  in  the  most  per- 


32G  HEIGHT     OF    CUTTING    GRASS. 

feet  manner.  A  large  proportion  of  the  accidents  which 
occur  arise  from  the  breaking  of  bolts  and  fingers. 
These,  though  apparently  trifles,  cause  not  a  little  an- 
noyance and  interruption.  Accidents  will  happen,  it  is 
true,  even  with  the  common  scythe ;  but  those  referred 
to  are,  for  the  most  part,  such  as  a  more  careful  con- 
struction would  prevent. 

The  manufacturer,  who,  for  the  sake  of  a  trifling 
saving,  slights  his  work  on  a  machine  newly  intro- 
duced, so  as  thereby  to  retard  its  introduction,  and 
create  a  want  of  confidence  in  the  machine  itself,  must 
indeed  be  blind  to  his  own  interest,  while  he  both  strikes 
a  blow  at  his  reputation,  and,  what  is  of  infinitely  greater 
consequence,  delays  and  retards  the  whole  progress  of 
agriculture. 

With  respect  to  the  height  from  the  ground  at  which 
it  is  best  to  cut  grass,  the  practice  and  the  opinions  of 
farmers  differ  widely  ;  for,  while  the  answers  from  about 
half  of  the  towns  say  that  farmers  generally  cut  as  close 
as  possible,  the  replies  from  others  vary  from  four  inches 
to  one-half  inch.  Thus,  forty-four  farmers  return,  "as 
close  as  possible  ; "  fourteen  others,  "  close,  or  very 
close  ;"  sixteen  others,  "from  two  and  a  half  to  three 
inches  high;"  ten  say  "two  inches  high;"  twenty- 
three  say  • "  from  one  to  two  inches ; "  and  one  says 
"  four  inches; "  while  some  say,  "it  might  be  cut  too 
close,"  or  "  close  cutting  is  injurious,"  or  "  most  people 
cut  too  low,"  and  many  say,  "  close  as  convenient,"  and 
this  is  the  most  common  practice. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  deduce  any  general  rule  from 
the  replies  to  the  question,  "  At  what  height  from  the 
ground  do  you  prefer  to  have  your  grass  cut,  and 
why?"  One  farmer,  of  great  experience  and  close 
observation,  says :  "  I  should  prefer  to  have  my  grass 
cut  high  enough  to  protect  the  roots  from  the  hot  sun. 


PRACTICAL    STATEMENTS.  327 

/  have  seen  Timothy  grass  nearly  kitted  by  cutting  close, 
in  a  dry,  hot  time." 

Another  intelligent  practical  farmer  says  :  "  I  prefer 
to  shave  pretty  close,  within  an  inch  of  the  ground 
when  smooth  enough.  I  still  remember  some  proverb- 
ial sayings  of  my  teacher  to  this  effect :  '  An  inch  at 
the  bottom  is  worth  two  at  the  top/  '  you  are  leaving 
your  wages  behind  you/  <fec.  Possibly,  in  very  hot,  dry 
weather,  on  a  dry  soil,  some  plants  might  be  injured  by 
a  too  close  shaving ;  but  I  should  not  apprehend  any 
harm,  even  then,  and  as  a  general  rule  I  prefer  to  have 
grass  cut  as  close  as  it  conveniently  can  be."  Another 
says  :  "  Upland  mowing  grounds  I  do  not  like  to  have 
cut  close,  having  an  idea  that  the  hot  sun  and  dry 
weather  which  often  follow  the  mowing  season  will 
have  an  unfavorable  influence  on  the  roots  of  the  grass. 
Low  and  wet  meadows  I  like  to  have  mown  close  as 
possible.  There,  the  heat  of  the  sun  is  beneficial."  — 
"  The  height  fram  the  ground  at  which  it  is  best  to  cut 
grass,"  says  a  very  successful  farmer,  "  depends  on  the 
season,  the  soil,  and  the  grass.  No  grass,  except  on 
moist  ground,  should  be  cut  so  low,  in  a  very  dry  sea- 
son, as  it  will  do  to  cut  it  in  a  wet  season.  The  natural 
grasses  I  like  to  have  cut  within  about  two  and  a  half 
inches  of  the  ground.  Our  old  fields  of  cultivated 
grasses  do  not  afford  much  after-feed  after  the  clover  is 
run  out ;  what  of  stubble  is  left  on  them  is  lost,  so  I 
like  to  mow  close." 

One  of  the  most  observing  farmers  in  the  country 
says:  "  I  prefer  grass  cut  from  an  inch  and  a  half  to  two 
inches,  as  it  starts  much  quicker  to  grow,  when  cut  at 
that  height,  than  when  shaved  close  to  the  earth,  as 
some  that  are  called  good  mowers  do  their  work.  If  it 
is  true  that  all  crops  are  benefited  from  the  ammonia  in 
the  atmosphere,  as  I  have  no  doubt  they  are,  judging 


328  TOP-DRESSING    THE    STUBBLE. 

from  grass  side  by  side,  the  one  cut  close,  the  other 
two  inches  high,  the  grasses  should  have  some  leaves 
left  them  to  receive  this  benefit.  Grass  cut  two  inches 
high  will  keep  growing,  while  that  closely  cut  will  be 
even  weeks  before  it  will  show  the  first  signs  of  life." 

Some  make  a  practice  of  top-dressing  immediately 
after  removing  the  hay  from  the  ground,  and  when  this 
course  is  adopted  the  grass  is  cut  quite  near  the  surface. 
A  farmer  who  takes  this  course  says  :  "Where  I  top-dress 
immediately  after,  I  cut  as  low  as  I  can,  to  save  all  the 
grass  I  can.  If  I  do  not  top-dress,  I  cut  from  two  to 
three  inches  high,  to  protect  and  nourish  the  roots.  I  do 
not  feed  in  the  fall  where  I  do  not  top-dress.  I  intend  to 
manure  all  my  natural  upland  mowing  land,  and  never 
feed  my  old  fields."  And  another  :  "  I  like  to  cut  rather 
near  the  ground,  for  the  reason  that  more  hay  is  obtained. 
If  the  soil  is  in  good  condition,  and  not  too  dry,  it  will 
start  again  immediately.  I  know  some  say  cut  high, 
the  stubble  will  manure  the  land  and  protect  the  roots ; 
but  I  prefer  to  manure  with  something  better  for  pro- 
tection. I  top-dress  my  mowing  land,  and  prefer  a 
compost  made  of  woollen  waste  and  meadow  mud  for 
soil  not  very  wet ;  but  for  a  cold,  heavy  soil,  should 
prefer  sand,  or  sandy  loam,  to  mix  with  wool  waste. 
Apply  fifteen  cart-loads,  of  thirty  bushels  each,  late  in 
autumn." 

Thus,  the  testimony  on  this  point  is  somewhat  at 
variance  ;  but  many  have  noticed  the  injury  inflicted 
upon  Timothy  by  low  cutting  in  dry  weather,  sufficient, 
perhaps,  to  establish  the  principle  alluded  to  on  a  pre- 
ceding page.  Most  concur  in  saying  that  the  finer 
grasses  can  be  cut  lower  with  safety,  particularly  if  the 
season  be  not  too  dry.  Much,  undoubtedly,  depends 
upon  the  soil  and  the  season. 


CHAPTER    X. 

CUEING    AND    SECURING    HAY. 

WE  have  seen  that  grasses  attain  their  full  develop- 
ment at  the  time  of  flowering,  and  then  contain  the 
highest  percentage  of  soluble  materials,  such  as  starch, 
sugar,  and  gum;  and  that  these,  with  the  nitrogenous 
compounds,  then  also  most  abundant,  are  of  greatest 
value  as  furnishing  the  nutriment  of  animals,  while 
woody  fibre  and  mineral  matter,  though  important  as 
giving  bulk  to  the  food,  are  insoluble  and  least  nutri- 
tious. We  have  seen,  also,  that,  in  the  transition  from 
the  flowering  to  the  ripening  of  the  seed,  the  starch, 
sugar,  &c.,  are  gradually  transformed  into  woody  fibre, 
in  which  state  they  possess  no  nutritive  qualities,  and 
are,  of  course,  of  little  value.  This  fact,  which  is  per- 
fectly well  established  by  careful  experiment  and  accu- 
rate analysis,  confirmed,  as  already  seen,  by  intelligent 
practice,  is  of  great  importance  as  indicating  the  condi- 
tion in  which  most  of  our  cultivated  grasses  should  be 
cut,  and  our  practice  is  pretty  uniformly  consistent 
with  it. 

But  there  is  another  equally  instructive  suggestion 
in  these  transforming  processes,  and  it  is  this :  If  grass 
is  cut  in  a  condition  ever  so  succulent,  and  before  the 
transition  of  sugar,  <fec.,  into  woody  fibre  has  commenced, 
there  will  even  then  be  some  loss  of  sugar  and  starch 
from  the  action  of  heat  and  moisture,  especially  if  the 


330  OVER-DRYING    HAY. 

grass  is  exposed  to  the  rain  in  the  process  of  curing, 
and  lignefactioii,  or  change  to  woody  fibre,  takes  place 
to  considerable  extent,  dependent,  of  course,  on  the 
length  of  time  it  is  exposed  to  air  and  light;  so  that 
grass  cured  with  the  least  exposure  to  the  searching, 
sifting  winds,  and  the  scorching  sunshine,  is,  other 
things  being  equal,  more  nutritious  than  grass  cured 
slower  and  longer  exposed,  however  fine  the  weather 
may  be.  In  other  words,  grass  over-cured,  in  the  pro- 
cess of  hay-making,  contains  more  useless  woody  fibre 
and  less  nutritive  qualities  than  grass  cured  more  has- 
tily, and  housed  before  being  dried  to  a  crisp.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  which  of  the  two  would  be  most  pal- 
atable to  the  animal.  Some  loss  of  nutritive  elements 
must,  therefore,  take  place  in  the  process  of  curing, 
however  perfect  it  may  be  ;  and  the  true  art  of  hay-mak- 
ing consists  in  curing  the  grass  just  up  to  the  point  at 
which  it  will  do  to  put  it  into  the  barn,  and  no  more,  in 
order  to  arrest  the  loss  at  the  earliest  possible  moment. 
And  this  fact  of  the  loss  of  sugar  and  starch,  or  of 
their  transformation  into  woody  fibre,  by  too  long  ex- 
posure to  the  sun  and  wind,  I  think  equally  well  estab- 
lished as  that  any  transformation  at  all  takes  place,  and 
as  equally  suggestive. 

But  on  this  point  far  greater  difference  of  opinion 
exists  among  practical  farmers,  some  considering  one 
good  hay-day  sufficient,  while  others  require  two,  and 
sometimes  three,  as  if  it  were  not  possible  to  dry  it  too 
much.  Our  practice  in  this  respect  is,  I  believe,  better 
than  it  used  to  be  twenty  years  ago.  Most  farmers  now 
think  that  grass  can  be  dried  too  much,  as  well  as  too 
little,  and  that  the  injury  and  loss  in  the  crop  is  equally 
great  from  over-curing  as  from  housing  green.  A  prac- 
tical farmer  says  :  "  One  good  hay-day  is  sufficient  to 
dry  Timothy,  redtop,  or  wet  meadow.  I  think  farmers 


PRACTICAL    EXPERIENCE.  331 

lose  more  by  drying  their  hay  too  much  than  by  not 
drying  it  enough." 

Another  writes  me  as  follows :  "  As  far  as  my  experi- 
ence and  observation  extend,  I  think  farmers  dry  their 
hay  too  much,  as  a  general  thing.  Grass  should  never 
be  dried  any  more  than  just  enough  to  have  it  keep 
well  in  the  mow.  I  think  it  is  best  to  get  in  hay  as 
green  as  it  will  possibly  do,  for  it  contains  more  juices, 
which  constitute  its  value." 

This  is  in  accordance  with  the  experience  of  another 
farmer,  who  says :  "  Redtop  is  a  more  difficult  grass  to 
make  into  hay  than  Timothy.  To  make  hay  from  any 
grass,  it  is  highly  important  that  the  swaths  of  the  hand- 
scythe  be  well  shaken ;  here  lies  the  secret  of  making 
hay  evenly,  without  having  green,  heavy  locks.  If  the 
burden  is  heavy,  time  in  making  the  hay,  if  cut  in  the 
morning,  will  be  gained  by  turning  it  by  one  o'clock,  P. 
M.,  and  then  putting  it  into  good-sized  cocks  while  it  is 
warm.  If  the  weather  be  clear,  according  to  my  expe- 
rience, this  hay  will  do  to  cart  the  second  day  without 
giving  it  much  attention,  —  the  sap  has  become  can- 
died, and  it  is  fit  for  the  mow.  The  exposing  the  hay  to 
the  air  on  the  second  day,  by  pitching,  is  of  essential 
benefit.  When  carted  the  same  day  it  is  mown,  unless 
dead  ripe,  it  will  be  withy,  clammy,  and  will  be  likely  to 
smoke  in  the  mow ;  in  which  case  the  hay  has  lost 
much  of  its  valuable  quality. 

"  To  keep  it  till  the  third  day,  and  expose  it  to  the 
rays  of  the  sun  every  day,  as  some  practise,  dries  out 
the  juices,  and  the  stem  becomes  hard  and  brittle,  —  the 
life  of  the  hay  is  gone  to  some  degree.  Our  mothers 
and  grandmothers  used  to  dry  herbs  in  the  shade ;  I 
hold  to  curing  hay  in  the  cock." 

Another  practical  farmer  in  the  same  section  says : 
"  My  way  of  making  Timothy  and  redtop  is  to  mow  it 


332  WHAT    FARMERS    SAY. 

early  in  the  morning,  and  when  the  dew  is  off  spread  it 
well.  I  like  to  dry  it  in  one  day's  sun,  if  I  possibly 
can  ;  if  not,  put  it  into  cocks  before  night,  then  get  it 
into  the  barn  as  green  as  I  can  and  not  have  it  hurt. 
I  do  not  want  my  hay  all  dried  up  ;  it  injures  it.  Wet 
meadow  I  put  into  the  barn  on  the  day  it  is  cut,  if  the 
weather  is  suitable  for  curing  it." 

Another  writes,  saying :  "  If  the  weather  is  good 
and  the  grass  not  too  heavy,  we  cut  in  the  forenoon 
and  get  into  the  barn  in  the  afternoon.  If  the  grass  is 
heavy  and  the  weather  not  good,  cut  in  the  forenoon 
and  turn  over  the  swaths  at  night ;  spread  and  get  in 
the  next  day.  I  do  not  believe  in  drying  hay  as  much 
as  some  do.  If  not  quite  dry,  two  or  three  quarts  of 
salt  to  the  load  will  preserve  it,  and  it  will  be  the  bet- 
ter." Another  says  :  "  I  prefer  to  cut  hay  in  the  blos- 
som on  a  good  hay-day  in  the  forenoon,  and  it  is  fit 
for  the  barn,  if  raked  with  the  horse-rake  and  care  is 
used  to  turn  it  over  and  bring  the  green  grass  to  the 
sun,  by  two  or  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  the 
same  day.  Much  hay  is  spoiled  by  being  dried  too 
much." 

"  Timothy  will  dry  sufficient  for  me,"  says  a  sensible 
farmer  of  my  acquaintance,  "  in  one  good  hay-day. 
I  dry  less  and  less  every  year.  If  there  is  no  moisture 
on  it,  there  is  little  danger  of  hurting  after  it  is  wilted." 
He  cuts  his  swale  hay  before  it  matures  and  while  it  is 
quite  green,  and  lets  his  upland  grasses  stand  till  they  are 
fully  developed,  and  commence  changing  their  deep 
green  color,  and  thinks  it  will  keep  the  same  stock 
longer  and  better,  if  cut  at  that  age.  Another  experi- 
enced farmer  says :  "  My  way  of  making  hay  is  to  cut 
when  in  blossom,  in  the  morning,  shake  it  out  evenly 
over  the  ground,  turn  it  over  at  eleven  o'clock,  and  get 
it  into  the  barn  on  the  same  day,  if  the  weather  is  good. 


THIRTY  YEARS'  EXPERIENCE.  333 

But,  if  the  grass  is  very  heavy,  I  put  it  into  cocks  over 
night.  I  consider  it  made  as  soon  as  dry  enough  not 
to  heat  in  the  mow.  To  get  dryer  than  this  is  an  injury 
to  the  hay." 

One  of  the  most  extensive  and  experienced  stock- 
feeders  in  New  England,  a  practical  farmer,  says  :  "  I 
prefer  to  cut  all  English  or  swale  grass  from  the  tenth 
of  June  to  the  first  of  July,  including  Timothy  and 
clover  at  the  same  time.  More  than  thirty  years'  expe- 
rience has  convinced  me  that  hay  secured  in  the  above 
time  —  or  just  before  coming  into  blossom  —  will  make 
cows  give  more  and  better  milk  and  butter,  will  put 
more  fat  on  animals  for  the  slaughter,  with  four  quarts 
of  meal  per  day,  than  eight  quarts  of  meal  with  hay 
well  secured  from  the  first  of  July  to  the  first  of 
August.  That  will  give  the  second  crop,  if  you  wish, 
time  to  grow,  and  it  may  be  cut  the  last  week  in  August, 
or  the  first  week  in  September ;  there  will  then  be  a 
crop  of  fall  feed,  which  most  farmers  prize  very  highly. 
If  you  do  not  wish  a  second  crop,  the  feed,  by  early 
mowing,  is  very  valuable.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
grass  is  cut  late,  the  hay  is  not  only  poor,  but  the  feed 
is  mere  nothing.  Every  farmer  of  my  acquaintance 
admits  that  the  hay  cut  early  is  far  superior  to  that  cut 
late,  unless  it  be  those  that  are  in  the  habit  of  selling 
hay  ;  even  that  class  must  lose  in  the  weight  of  their 
crop  by  late  cutting.  Many  buyers  have  not  yet  learned 
the  difference  between  early  and  late  cut  hay,  when  the 
real  difference  is  oftentimes  from  four  to  six  dollars  per 
ton.  Working  horses  and  oxen  will  keep  in  better 
condition  with  half  the  grain  when  fed  upon  early-cut 
%." 

Another  writes  me  as  follows  :  "  My  method  is  to  cut 
with  the  mowing  machine,  which  leaves  the  grass  per- 
fectly spread.  It  is  turned  over  between  one  and  two 


334  THE    PREVAILING    PRACTICE. 

o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  while  still  warm,  and  before 
the  evening  dew  falls  it  is  put  into  cocks.  It  is  spread 
and  turned  the  next  morning,  and  at  one  o'clock  is 
ready  for  the  barn.  I  cannot  tell,  on  paper,  the  precise 
point  of  dryness  at  which  hay  should  be  housed  ;  but 
with  my  hands,  eyes,  and  nose,  I  can  judge  when  it  is 
dry  enough  not  to  hurt  in  the  mow,  and  not  so  dry  as 
to  crumble,  or  to  have  lost  any  more  of  its  virtues  than 
necessary.  The  less  drying  the  better,  if  it  does  not 
injure  in  the  mow."  Another  practical  farmer  says :  "  I 
prefer  two  days,  but  want  to  have  it  lay  thick  together, 
and  stirred  often  the  first  day,  and  but  little  the  second. 
In  this  way  the  hay  retains  more  of  the  juices,  smells 
sweeter,  looks  greener,  and  the  cattle  like  it  much  better. 
Hay  should  be  cured  so  that  it  will  not  heat  in  the  mow, 
arid  no  more/'  Another  says :  "  Hay  may  generally  be 
dried  enough  in  one  good  hay-day,  with  proper  care,  to 
be  left  over  night  in  the  cock,  and  carried  to  the  barn 
the  next  afternoon  without  spreading.  Hay  may  be 
dried  too  much,  as  well  as  too  little."  "  Timothy  and 
redtop,"  says  another,  "  carefully  spread  as  soon  as  the 
ground  between  the  swaths  is  dry,  and,  if  heavy,  turned 
about  noon,  will  dry  sufficiently  in  one  day,  if  a  clear 
one,  to  be  put  into  the  barn  before  sunset.  I  believe 
many  dry  their  hay  too  much.  Never  dry  it  so  as  to 
make  it  brittle  when  twisted  in  the  hand." 

These,  and  many  other  extracts  of  a  similar  import, 
which  might  be  given  did  space  permit,  indicate,  with 
sufficient  distinctness,  the  prevailing  practice  among 
the  best  farmers  :  but,  as  constantly  intimated,  it  is  very 
common  to  find  hay  dried  far  too  much.  Every  farmer 
is  aware  of  the  importance  of  keeping  his  grass  and 
hay  as  free  from  dew  and  water  as  possible.  An  expos- 
ure to  rain  washes  out  much  of  the  soluble  constitu- 
ents of  the  grass,  leaving  a  useless,  brittle,  woody  fibre. 


CURING     CLOVERS    FOB    STOCK.  335 

Grass  and  hay  are  greatly  injured  by  remaining  too 
long  under  a  hot  sun  without  being  turned.  A  some- 
what different  method  is  adopted  for  the  artificial 
grasses. 

The  natural  grasses,  when  cut  for  hay,  are  generally 
spread  and  dried  as  rapidly  as  possible,  in  order  to 
secure  them  in  the  best  manner.  Experience  has  proved 
that  the  same  method  is  not  applicable  to  the  clover 
crop.  It  requires  a  longer  time  to  cure  it  properly, 
and,  if  exposed  to  the  scorching  sun,  it  is  injured  even 
more  than  the  natural  grasses,  since  its  succulent  leaves 
and  tender  blossoms  are  quickly  browned,  and  lose  their 
sweetness  in  a  measure,  and  are  themselves  liable  to  be 
wasted  in  handling  over.  Most  good  farmers,  therefore, 
prefer  to  cure  it  in  the  cock.  A  practical  farmer,  of 
long  experience,  says :  "  I  prefer  to  mow  clover  when 
it  is  dry,  free  from  dew ;  let  it  wilt,  and  the  same  day 
it  is  mown  fork  it  into  cocks  which  will  weigh  from 
forty  to  fifty  weight  when  fit  for  the  barn.  Do  not 
rake  and  roll  it :  that  process  will  compress  it  too 
much. 

"  According  to  the  weather  and  my  convenience,  I 
let  it  stand  ;  it  will  settle  and  turn  the  rain  very  well, 
and  will  answer  to  put  into  the  mow  while  the  heads 
and  stalks  are  yet  green  and  fresh.  When  fit  to  cart, 
the  stalks,  although  green,  will  be  found  to  be  destitute, 
or  nearly  so,  of  sap  :  the  sap  has  candied,  and  the 
clover  will  keep.  On  the  day  of  carting,  turn  the  cocks 
over,  expose  the  bottom  to  the  sun  an  hour  or  so,  and 
to  a  ton  of  hay  add  four  to  six  quarts  of  salt  in  the 
mow. 

"  Good  clover  —  not  rank —  cured  in  this  way  I  con- 
sider to  be  worth  nearly  or  quite  as  much  as  clear  Tim- 
othy to  feed  to  a  stock  of  cattle,  and  for  milch  cows  I 
consider  it  to  be  by  far  preferable  to  Timothy.  Good 


336  CUEING    CLOVERS     FOR    STOCK. 

clover  hay  will  keep  up  the  quantity  of  milk,  while 
Timothy  will  diminish  it." 

Another  practical  farmer,  of  the  same  locality,  in  one 
of  the  best  farming  towns  in  New  England,  says :  "  My 
method  of  curing  clover  is  this :  what  is  mown  in  the 
morning  I  leave  in  the  swath,  to  be  turned  over  early 
in  the  afternoon.  At  about  four  o'clock,  or  while  it  is 
still  warm,  I  put  it  into  small  cocks  with  a  fork,  and  if 
the  weather  is  favorable  it  may  be  housed  on  the  fourth 
or  fifth  day,  the  cocks  being  turned  over  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  day  it  is  to  be  carted.  By  so  doing,  all  the 
heads  and  leaves  are  saved,  and  these  are  worth  more 
than  the  stems.  This  has  been  my  method  for  the  last 
ten  years.  For  new  milch  cows,  in  the  winter,  I  think 
there  is  nothing  better.  It  will  make  them  give  as 
great  a  flow  of  milk  as  any  hay,  unless  it  be  good 
rowen.  For  working  oxen  and  horses  its  value  is 
about  one-quarter  less  than  Timothy." 

Another  writes  as  follows :  "  When  the  weather  bids 
fair  to  be  good,  I  mow  it  after  the  dew  is  off,  and  cock 
it  up  after  being  wilted,  using  the  fork  instead  of 
rolling  with  the  rake,  and  let  it  remain  several  days, 
when  it  is  fit  to  put  into  the  barn."  Another  says  :  "  I 
mow  my  clover  in  the  forenoon,  and  towards  night  of 
the  same  day  I  take  forks  and  pitch  it  into  cocks,  and 
let  it  stand  till  it  cures.  The  day  I  cart  it,  I  turn  the 
cocks  over,  so  as  to  air  the  lower  part.  I  then  put  it 
into  the  mow  with  all  the  leaves  and  heads  on,  and  it  is 
as  nice  and  green  as  green  tea.  I  think  it  worth,  for 
milch  cows  and  sheep,  as  much  per  ton  as  English 
hay." 

Still  another  says :  "I  have  found  no  better  hay  for 
farm  stock  than  good  clover,  cut  in  season.  For  milch 
rows  it  is  much  better  than  Timothy.  It  keeps  horses 
that  are  not  worked  hard  better  than  any  hay.  And 


MIXING  'WITH    OLD    HAY.  337 

small  clover,  as  the  rowen  crop,  is  better  than  any  other 
kind  for  calves.  Clover-  is  not  good  market  hay,  as  it 
wastes  in  removal  from  the  barn.  Stable-keepers  give 
much  more  for  coarse  Timothy,  that  cannot  easily  be 
drawn  through  a  rack." — "  We  mow  clover  in  the  fore- 
noon, and  let  it  lie  in  the  swath,  and  put  it  into  small 
cocks  in  the  afternoon,"  says  another  farmer.  "  If  the 
weather  be  fair  on  the  third  day,  open  it  to  the  air  and 
sun  for  two  or  three  hours,  and  then  put  it  into  the 
barn.  I  have  found  clover  cured  in  this  way  keep 
sweet  and  free  from  mould,  and  of  equal  value  with 
other  hay."  Another  says  :  "  I  have  tried  three  differ- 
ent ways  of  curing  clover.  One  was,  to  make  it  in  the 
same  manner  of  other  grasses  ;  another,  to  dry  it  one 
day  in  the  swath  till  wilted,  and  then  pitch  it  into  cocks 
to  stand  some  days,  according  to  circumstances ;  and 
the  third  was,  to  give  it  one  good  day's  sun,  turning  it 
over  and  getting  out  the  water,  and  mixing  it  in  the 
barn  with  old  hay  or  straw.  I  managed  in  this  way  a 
year  ago,  the  weather  being  very  '  catching,'  cut  and 
dried  it  as  much  as  possible  in  one  day,  and  carted  it 
into  the  barn  the  same  afternoon.  I  mixed  it  with  some 
old  swale  hay  that  had  been  left  over,  placing  a  layer 
of  old  hay,  then  a  layer  of  clover,  building  it  up  in  a 
square  mow.  My  neighbors  laughed  at  me,  and  said  I 
should  burn  my  barn  down  by  putting  in  that '  green 
stuff.'  But  I  must  say  I  never  had  better  clover  hay 
than  that.  The  cattle  would  eat  all  the  meadow  or 
swale  hay,  as  well  as  the  clover.  There  was  not  a  par- 
ticle of  smoke  about  it,  on  feeding  it  out.  When  cured 
in  this  way,  or  by  the  second  method,  in  the  cock,  I 
think  clover  hay  is  worth  two-thirds  as  much  as  good 
English  hay  to  feed  out  to  farm  stock." 

From  what  has  been  said  in  these  extracts,  which 
might  be   multiplied,   it    appears   evident   that    good 

29 


338         TESTIMONY    OF    PRACTICAL    FARMERS. 

farmers  appreciate  the  importance  of  so  curing  clover 
as  to  preserve  its  tender  and  succulent  foliage.  They 
are  careful  not  to  over-dry  it,  for  fear  of  loss  of  the 
blossoms  and  the  leaves.  But  it  is  not  uncommon 
among  thriftless  farmers  to  handle  it  in  such  a  way 
that  the  best  parts  of  it  are  shaken  off  and  destroyed. 

The  method  detailed  in  the  last  extract,  of  mixing 
clover  with  a  poor  quality  of  hay  or  straw,  has  some- 
times been  adopted  with  great  success,  the  clover  im- 
parting its  fragrant  odor  to  the  hay  with  which  it  is 
brought  in  contact,  greatly  improving  its  quality,  while 
its  own  value  is  preserved  without  injury.  It  is  not 
only  a  matter  of  convenience,  oftentimes,  to  have  the 
clover  so  secured  in  catching  weather,  but,  on  careful 
experiment,  may  be  found  worthy  of  being  more  gener- 
ally practised. 

The  general  testimony  of  practical  farmers,  as  to  the 
value  of  clover  hay  as  compared  with  that  of  Timothy 
and  redtop,  our  prevailing  natural  grasses,  varies  ex- 
ceedingly ;  some  making  it  of  equal  value,  others  esti- 
mating it  at  one-half,  and  from  that  to  two-thirds  and 
three-fourths. 

The  practice  of  raising  Indian  corn  to  cut  and  feed 
out  green  by  way  of  partial  soiling  is  very  common  in 
New  England,  as  already  intimated,  in  speaking  of  the 
natural  history  of  the  grasses.  This  culture  has  been 
carried  still  further  by  many  farmers,  and  many  acres 
are  raised,  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  cutting  and  curing  for  winter  use.  Great  hopes 
are  entertained,  by  many,  of  the  utility  of  the  culture 
and  use  of  the  Chinese  sugar-cane  also,  which,  it  is 
thought  may  be  raised,  cut,  and  cured,  in  the  same  way, 
and  for  the  same  purpose. 

The  common  practice  with  regard  to  Indian  corn  for 
a  fodder  crop,  and  which  has  been  already  partially 


INDIAN    CORN    FODDER.  339 

stated,  is  to  sow  in  drills  from  two  and  a  half  to  three 
feet  apart,  on  land  well  tilled  and  thoroughly  manured, 
making  the  drills  from  six  to  ten  inches  wide,  with  the 
plough,  manuring  in  the  furrow,  dropping  the  corn 
about  two  inches  apart,  and  covering  with  the  hoe. 
In  this  mode  of  culture  the  cultivator  may  be  used 
between  the  rows  when  the  corn  is  from  six  to  twelve 
inches  high,  and,  unless  the  ground  is  very  weedy,  no 
other  after  culture  is  generally  needed.  The  first  sow- 
ing commonly  takes  place  about  the  usual  time  of  corn 
planting,  and  this  is  succeeded  by  other  sowings,  at 
intervals  of  a  week  or  ten  days,  till  July,  in  order  to 
have  a  succession  of  green  fodder.  But,  if  it  is  designed 
to  cut  it  up  to  cure  for  winter  use,  an  early  sowing  is 
generally  preferred,  in  order  to  be  able  to  cure  it  in 
warm  weather,  in  August  or  early  in  September.  Sown 
in  this  way,  about  three  or  four  bushels  of  corn  are  re- 
quired for  an  acre  ;  since,  if  sown  thickly,  the  fodder  is 
better,  the  stalks  smaller,  and  the  waste  less. 

The  chief  difficulty  in  curing  corn  cultivated  for  this 
purpose,  and  after  the  methods  spoken  of,  arises  mainly 
from  the  fact  that  it  comes  at  a  season  when  the  weather 
is  often  colder,  the  days  shorter,  and  the  dews  heavier, 
than  when  the  curing  of  hay  takes  place.  Nor  is  the 
curing  of  corn  cut  up  green  so  easy  and  simple  as  that 
of  drying  the  stalks  of  Indian  corn  cut  above  the  ear, 
as  in  our  common  practice  of  topping,  since  then  the 
plant  is  riper,  less  juicy,  and  cures  more  readily.  The 
method  sometimes  adopted  is  to  cut  and  tie  into  small 
bundles,  after  it  is  somewhat  wilted,  and  stook  upon  the 
ground,  where  it  is  allowed  to  stand,  subject  to  all  the 
changes  of  the  weather,  with  only  the  protection  of  the 
stook  itself.  The  stooks  consist  of  bunches  of  stalks 
first  bound  in  small  bundles,  and  are  made  sufficiently 
large  to  prevent  the  wind  from  blowing  them  over. 


340  KILN-DRYING     INDIAN    CORN. 

The  arms  are  thrown  around  the  tops  to  bring  them 
together  as  closely  as  possible,  when  the  tops  are  broken 
over  or  twisted  together,  or  otherwise  iastened,  in  order 
to  make  the  stook  "  shed  the  rain  "  as  well  as  possible. 
In  this  condition  they  stand  out  till  sufficiently  dried  to 
put  into  the  barn. 

But  Indian  corn  stooked  in  this  way  often  becomes 
musty  or  covered  with  dust,  while  the  rains  often  soak 
it  thoroughly  and  wash  out  much  of  its  soluble  matter, 
and  its  nutritive  value  is  in  a  great  measure  lost.  Be- 
sides, every  one  knows  that  to  cut  up  a  green  plant,  as 
a  willow  or  any  other  thriftily-growing  plant  or  shrub, 
and  set  it  up  with  the  cut  end  resting  upon  the  ground, 
where  it  can  still  derive  moisture  from  the  soil,  will 
prevent  its  drying.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  also,  that 
the  exposure  to  the  sun,  wind,  and  rain,  greatly  injures 
it,  by  removing  much  of  its  sweetness,  or  changing  it 
to  woody  fibre,  while  it  takes  from  it  its  beautiful  fresh 
green  color. 

To  avoid  the  losses  necessarily  attending  these  modes 
of  curing,  some  have  suggested  kiln-drying  as  far  pref- 
erable, and,  on  the  whole,  as  economical.  I  have 
known  the  experiment  tried  in  one  or  two  instances 
with  complete  success,  the  fodder  coming  out  with  its 
fresh  green  color,  and  apparently  better  relished  by 
cattle  than  that  dried  in  the  ordinary  way.  This 
method  appears  to  me  to  be  worthy  of  much  more 
extended  and  careful  experiment.  The  kiln  need  not 
be  elaborately  or  expensively  contrived.  The  process 
of  drying  would  be  short,  and  the  labor  slight. 

Another  mode  which  has  been  suggested  is  to  hang 
it  up  in  sheds  open  to  the  air,  precisely  as  tobacco  is 
cured.  This  process  would  be  longer,  but  the  nutritive 
qualities  of  the  plant  would  probably  be  better  pre- 
served .than  if  cured  in  the  open  air,  with  the  exposure 


THE    METHODS    OF    BAKING.  341 

to  the  frequent  changes  of  the  weather.  It  is  hardly 
necessary  to  say  that,  if  it  is  proposed  to  cure  in  this 
way,  it  should  be  hung  up  thinly,  and  the  air  should  be 
allowed  to  circulate  through  it.  After  being  well  dried, 
it  is  taken  down  and  stowed  away  in  the  barn  for  use. 
This  method  avoids  the  trouble  of  stocking,  and  the 
liability  to  injury  from  rains  and  dews,  which  blacken 
the  stalks,  though  it  requires  considerable  room,  and  is, 
of  course,  attended  with  some  additional  labor. 


Fig.  164. 

Hay,  when  sufficiently  cured,  is  gathered  either  with 
the  common  hand-rake,  Fig.  164,  or  most  frequently  with 
the  horse-rake,  Figs.  165  and  166. 

This  implement  has  come  into  almost  universal  use, 
and  no  farmer  of  any  extent  would  be  without  one.  It 
met  with  great  opposition  and  encountered  great  ridi- 
cule on  its  first  introduction;  but  has  survived  it  all,  and 
become  indispensable  in  all  thrifty  and  economical  farm- 
ing. I  shall  do  no  more  than  give  the  authority  of 
practical  farmers  in  answer  to  the  thirteenth  question 
of  the  circular,  "Have  you  used  a  horse-rake;  if  so,  what 
patent,  and  witli  what  advantage?" 

To  this  an  experienced  farmer  of  Massachusetts  thus 
replies:  "I* have  used  various  horse-rakes  for  fifteen 
years.  Much  labor  is  saved  by  the  use  of  any  kind  of 
Horse-rake  that  has  been  introduced  within  that  time.  < 

"  Horse-rakes  are  on  a  footing  different  from  mowing 

machines.     Grass  may  be   cut  in  the  morning,  in  the 

evening,  or  in  a  cloudy  day.     But  hay  must  be  raked 

at  the  very  right  time,  or  it  may  be   entirely  spoiled. 

29* 


342 


THE    HORSE-RAKE. 


It  is,  therefore,  quite  important  to  do  work  quick,  when 
the  time  for  doing  it  comes.  With  a  good  rake,  a  man 
and  horse  will  gather  more  hay  in  half  an  hour  than  a 
laborer  with  a  hand-rake  usually  gathers  in  a  long  after- 
noon,— that  is,  one  acre;  this  is  considered  a  half-day's 
raking  by  hand-rake. 


Fig.  165.    Revolving  Rake. 


"  The  independent  rake  operates  very  well.  The  old 
revolving  rake,  Fig.  165,  costs  about  the  same.  One 
objection  to  the  spring-tooth  rake  is,  that  the  wire  teeth 
scratch  up  too  much  earth."  This  is  seen  in  Fig.  1G6. 


Fig.  166.     Sprinp-tooth  Rake. 


A  practical  farmer  of  large  experience  says:  "I  have 
used  what  is  called  the  independent  horse-rake,  Delano's 
patent,  and  with  great  advantage.  I  have  also  used  the  re- 
volving and  the  spring-tooth  rake.  I  prefer  the  independ- 


THE    INDEPENDENT    RAKE,  343 

ent.  In  short,  it  is  my  opinion  that  no  modern  inven- 
tion of  agricultural  implements  has  made  so  great  a 
saving  over  the  old  method  of  performing  farm  work 
as  the  independent  horse-rake." 

Another  farmer  says :  "  I  have  used  Delano's  inde- 
pendent rake  for  several  years.  I  regard  it  as  a  valua- 
ble implement,  saving  thirty  per  cent.,  at  least,  of  labor 
and  time.  This  rake  ought  to  be  made  of  better  mate- 
rials and  vrith  more  care,  or  it  will  be  given  up  for  some 
other."  The  complaint  that  it  is  very  badly  made,  and 
constantly  liable  to  get  out  of  order  in  consequence,  is 
very  general. 

Another  practical  farmer  says :  "  I  have  used  a  re- 
volver ever  since  I  commenced  working  on  a  farm,  and 
would  as  soon  think  of  haying  without  a  pitchfork  as 
without  a  horse-rake." 

"  I  used  an  iron-toothed  rake  three  seasons,"  says 
another  farmer,  "  and  I  thought  with  profit ;  but  I 
bought  one  of  Delano's  independent  rakes,  and  I  think 
it  is  worth  three  times  as  much  as  any  iron-toothed  one, 
as  it  does  not  make  the  hay  so  dusty  as  the  others.  It 
is  also  a  great  saving  in  time  and  labor,  as  a  boy  twelve 
years  old  will  rake  as  much  with  Delano's  patent,  as  a 
man  and  boy  with  any  other  kind  I  have  ever  seen, 
and  do  it  better.  I  have  used  one  of  this  kind  for  four 
seasons,  and  it  has  not  cost  me  twenty-five  cents  a  year 
for  repairs,  although  my  form  is  rough  and  rocky."  — 
"  The  horse-rake  is  a  great  labor-saving  implement,"  an- 
other says.  "  For  several  successive  years  I  used  the 
revolving  horse-rake  to  good  advantage.  There  was 
labor  in  it,  but  it  is  a  good  rake.  Delano's  patent  — 
the  independent  tooth  horse-rake  —  has  taken  the  place 
of  the  revolver  with  me ;  it  is  managed  with  much 
more  ease,  the  teeth  each  one  acting  independent  of 
all  others,  at  all  times  laying  on  the  surface,  whether 


344  OPINIONS    OF    FARMEKS. 

even  or  otherwise,  will  rake  cleaner  than  the  revolver, 
and  will  not  get  so  much  dirt  on  the  hay  as  will  the 
spring-tooth." 

And  another  :  "  I  use  the  wire-tooth.  The  independ- 
ent or  wheel  rake  is  used  some  ;  both  are  good.  I  cut 
about  sixty  tons  of  hay,  and  my  rake  I  have  no  doubt 
saves  me  twenty  dollars  every  year.  First  in  labor, 
and  second  in  quality  of  hay,  —  everything  being- 
raked  at  night."  Another  says  :  "  We  have  used  the 
revolving  horse-rake  for  the  last  ten  years  or  more, 
and  my  opinion  is  that,  could  I  have  my  choice 
between  six  men  or  a  horse  and  rake,  after  dinner, 
with  a  quantity  of  hay  to  secure,  I  should  take  the 
latter." 


Fig.  167.    The  Loafer  Rake. 

A  very  successful  farmer  says  :  "  We  formerly  used 
the  revolver  with  good  success  ;  but  for  the  last  four 
or  five  years  we  have  used  Delano's  independent  horse- 
rake,  and  like  it  better  than  the  revolver,  as  it  is  easier 
for  the  horse,  easier  for  the  person  who  uses  it,  and 
rakes  better  on  uneven  land.  The  great  difficulty  with 
the  independent  rake  is,  that  it  is  so  wretchedly  made 
that  our  farmers  cannot  depend  upon  it,  and  they  com- 
plain of  its  getting  out  of  order  at  times  when  they 
most  need  it.  They  are  compelled  to  resort  to  the 
use  of  other  patents  which  are  not  so  convenient,  on 


IMPLEMENTS    BADLY    MADE. 


345 


account  of  their  being  better  constructed."  Another 
says  :  "  I  have  used  the  independent  horse-rake  for 
seven  years,  and  find  it  a  great  labor-saving  machine. 


It  has  not  cost  me  a  dollar  to  keep  in  repair,  and  it  is 
now  as  good  as  new,  though  most  farmers  who  use  it 
say  it  is  liable  to  get  out  of  order,  from  being  very 


346  CARPENTER'S  HORSE-RAKE. 

badly  manufactured.  This,  if  true,  is  enough  to  con- 
demn any  farm  implement,  because  farmers  are  not 
generally  so  situated  as  to  be  able  to  afford  such  fre- 
quent mishaps." 

Still  another  patent,  which  promises  to  be  a  great 
addition  to  our  present  facilities  for  raking  hay,  has 
been  introduced  under  the  name  of  "  Carpenter's  Im- 
proved Horse-rake."  This  rake  is  seen  in  Fig.  1G8. 
The  parties  interested  claim  for  it  very  important 
advantages  over  the  horse-rakes  now  in  common  use. 
The  driver  rides  upon  the  rake  comfortably  seated,  and 
by  means  of  a  lever,  which  he  can  move  at  will,  and 
without  changing  his  position,  frees  the  hay  gathered  in 
the  teeth  of  the  rake. 

It  is  a  double  rake,  made  for  both  smooth  and  rough 
ground.  On  smooth  ground  the  wheels  may  be  used, 
while  on  rough  ground  the  driver  may  walk  behind  and 
manage  it  with  ease,  and  adapt  it  without  difficulty  to 
inequalities  of  surface.  As  it  is  a  new  implement,  and 
Las  not  been  extensively  used,  I  cannot  speak  of  it  from 
personal  observation  or  experience. 

The  frequent  losses  to  which  farmers  are  subject  in 
making  hay  have  suggested  the  use  of  hay-caps,  made 
to  cover  the  cocks  and  protect  them  from  the  weather. 
It  is  but  recently  that  their  use  was  introduced,  and, 
like  most  novelties,  it  has  met  with  objections  from 
some  on  the  score  of  economy,  while  their  use  is  as 
strongly  approved  by  others  on  the  same  ground.  I 
have  often  seen  them  used,  and  the  time  taken  to  cover 
an  acre  of  grass  or  hay  in  cock  partially  cured  is  less 
than  most  would  naturally  suppose.  Where  they  are  to 
be  used,  less  care  is  needed  for  "  trimming  down"  the  * 
cock,  and  putting  it  in  a  condition  to  shed  the  rain  in 
the  best  possible  manner. 

An  experienced  practical  farmer  says  :  "  I  have  used 


USE    OF    HAY-CAPS.  347 

hay-caps  with  good  results.  I  have  one  hundred  made 
of  cotton  sheeting,  two  yards  square,  with  pins  attached 
to  the  four  corners  with  strong  twine ;  the  hundred 
cost  me  just  forty  dollars.  I  think  they  have  saved  me 
twenty  dollars  this  year.  I  had  at  one  time  this  season 
one  hundred  and  thirty  cocks  standing  out  in  a  six 
days'  storm.  One  hundred  were  covered,  and,  not 
having  caps  enough,  thirty  were  left  uncovered.  The 
uncovered  was  worth  but  little,  while  the  covered  was 


Fig.  169.    Hay-caps. 

passable  hay.  I  stocked  some  oats,  which  I  capped. 
They  stood  a  two  days'  rain  without  injury."  And 
another :  "  Our  caps  are  made  of  heavy  five-fourths 
cotton  cloth,  cut  square,  with  four  little  loops,  through 
which  we  run  a  slim  wooden  pin  into  the  hay-cock. 
The  pins  hold  it  better  than  weights  in  the  corner. 
Ours  cost  twenty-one  cents  apiece.  Have  saved  the 
cost  in  one  storm  this  season." 

"  In  reply  to  your  question  as  to  the  utility  of  hay- 
caps,"  says  another  farmer,  "  it  gives  me  pleasure  to 


348  ECONOMY    OF    HAY-CAPS. 

say  that,  after  using  them  constantly,  for  the  last  seven 
years,  I  consider  them  of  the  first  importance  in  the 
most  critical  branch  of  farming. 

"  I  can  safely  affirm  that  my  hay  has  been  intrinsically 
worth,  on  the  average,  one  or  two  dollars  a  ton  more 
than  my  neighbors',  which  has  been  proved  by  the 
remarkable  health  of  my  animals. 

"  My  horses  have  not  been  sick  an  hour,  and  the 
heaves  are  unknown  in  my  stable,  which  may  fairly  be 
attributed  to  the  fact  that  no  musty  hay  ever  enters  my 
barn ;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  milk  of  cows  may  be 
as  unhealthy,  if  they  eat  badly-cured  hay,  as  if  fed  on 
what  is  called  swill  in  the  cities. 

"  Having  these  covers  always  at  hand,  it  has  been  my 
practice  to  mow  my  grass  when  -it  was  ready,  without 
consulting  the  almanac,  or  waiting  for  a  change  of  the 
moon ;  and  the  result  has  been  that  I  have  had  more 
than  my  share  of  good  luck  in  this  important  branch  of 
business. 

"  They  are  also  very  useful  as  a  protection  against 
heavy  dews,  and  as  a  cover  for  coarse  clover  and 
Timothy  I  consider  them  indispensable. 

"  After  long  experience,  1  have  found  the  most  ap- 
proved method  of  making  the  hay-covers,  which  may 
be  used  for  wheat  and  other  grain  crops  with  great 
advantage,  is  to  take  stout  unbleached  cotton  sheeting, 
of  a  suitable  width,  say  from  thirty-seven  to  forty-five 
inches  wide,  —  the  latter  is  the  best,  —  cut  it  into 
squares,  and  attach  to  each  corner,  by  a  string  or  other- 
wise, a  pin  made  of  wood,  twelve  or  fifteen  inches  long, 
cut  off  smooth  at  one  end  and  rounded  over  at  the 
other,  which  completes  the  affair.  The  size  of  the  pin 
should  be  about  an  inch  in  diameter. 

"  Hemming  the  selvages  is  a  matter  of  fancy,  as  they 
would  do  very  well  without  it ;  and,  if  a  tannery  is  near 


A  PERMANENT  STRUCTURE.          349 

by,  it  would  greatly  improve  them  to  plunge  them 
into  a  vat  for  two  or  three  days.  This  would  thicken 
up  the  cloth  an  inch  or  two,  and  make  it  more  durable, 
as  well  as  much  more  effectual.  A  decoction  of  bark, 
with  alum,  or  some  other  astringent,  would  probably 
answer  equally  as  well ;  but  this  is  not  necessary,  to 
make  an  excellent  hay-cover.  Like  a  cotton  umbrella, 
the  first  dash  of  a  heavy  shower  would  cause  it  to 
spatter  through  for  a  moment,  but  would  do  little  or  no 
harm.  I  doubt  whether  a  larger  size  than  forty-five 
inches  square,  or  forty-five  by  fifty,  would  be  desirable. 
Mine  have  been  not  much  over  thirty-six  inches 
square." 

Another  farmer  says :  "  I  have  never  used  them 
myself,  but  they  are  used  in  the  neighborhood  to  good 
advantage.  A  neighbor  of  mine,  who  has  used  them 
for  three  years,  says  they  have  been  worth  to  him  this 
year  the  whole  cost,  as  with  them  he  has  been  able  to 
get  all  his  hay  in  in  good  order,  while  a  large  quantity, 
where  they  were  not  used,  WHS  made  nearly  worthless 
by  the  long-continued  wet  weather." 

A  permanent  structure  for  covering  and  protecting 
hay-stacks  is  described  by  a  farmer,  in  answer  to  the 
question  proposed  in  the  circular,  as  follows  :  "  I  have 
a  structure  called  a  hay-cap,  which,  if  farmers  have  not 
sufficient  barn-room,  I  think  would  be  economical,  as  hay 
can  be  more  rapidly  secured  than  in  the  common  stack, 
and  it  obviates  the  necessity  of  fencing,  and  prevents  the 
hay  from  being  wet  while  the  stack  is  open  for  feeding. 
This  cap  is  twelve  feet  square,  and  consists  of  two  sills, 
fourteen  feet  in  length  and  eight  inches  square,  four 
posts,  five  inches  square  and  seventeen  feet  long, 
framed  into  the  sills  one  foot  from  the  end  of  the  same. 
The  sills  are  held  together  by  two  girts,  framed  into  the 
post  just  above  the  sill.  The  posts  are  held  firmly  by 


350  PERMANENT    CAPS    FOR    STACKS. 

girts,  placed  five  feet  eight  inches  above  the  sills,  to 
which  height  the  box  part  of  the  structure  is  boarded. 
The  posts  above  the  box  are  perforated  with  holes,  one 
foot  apart,  for  the  insertion  of  pins,  to  sustain  the  cap 
or  cover.  This  (in  form  of  a  pyramid)  should  be  made 
as  light  as  possible,  so  that  it  may  be  readily  raised  by 
placing  the  shoulder  under  the  corner.  The  frame  of 
three  by  four  joists  must  be  large  enough  to  fall  outside 
the  posts  and  admit  of  some  play.  The  rafters  are 
small  joists,  nine  feet  in  length,  the  feet  resting  upon 
short  pieces  of  joist,  placed  across  the  corners  of  the 
frame,  thereby  forming  openings  for  the  posts  to  pass. 
The  tops  of  the  rafters  are  nailed  together  over  the 
centre  of  the  frame.  Girts  should  be  placed  half-way 
from  the  eaves  to  the  point  of  the  roof,  to  nail  covering 
boards  to.  These  should  be  good  half-inch  stuff,  arid 
run  from  the  eaves  to  the  rafters.  The  tops  of  the  posts 
should  be  kept  from  spreading  by  stay  lathing  them. 
A  hay-cap  of  the  dimensions  given  will  hold  five  tons 
of  hay.  The  cost  I  do  not  know,  as  this  was  on  the 
place  at  the  time  of  my  coming  on  to  it." 


CHAPTER  XL 

GENERAL  TREATMENT  OF  GRASS  LANDS. 

THE  importance  of  having  the  ground  well  tilled  and 
thoroughly  prepared  by  liberal  manuring  before  com- 
mitting the  seed  to  it,  is  too  apparent  to  need  remark. 
When  the  seed  is  sown,  it  is  the  common  practice  to 
harrow  it  in,  either  with  an  iron-tooth  or  a  bush  or 
brush  harrow,  or  both  ;  and  those  who  adopt  a  more 
careful  culture  follow  these  operations  with  a  thorough 
rolling,  which  compresses  the  soil,  and  usually  causes  an 
earlier  germination  of  the  seed.  The  importance  of  this 
last  operation,  that  of  rolling,  is  too  often  overlooked. 
By  reference  to  Table  XIV.,  the  importance  of  cover- 
ing at  the  proper  depth  is  also  apparent,  since  it  will  be 
seen  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  seeds  germinated 
with  a  very  slight  covering. 

Many  questions  of  a  practical  character  suggest  them- 
selves to  the  farmer,  after  all  has  been  done  to  secure 
a  complete  and  thorough  cultivation  of  the  soil  and  a 
luxuriant  crop,  and  among  the  first  is  the  economy  of 
fall  feeding. 

This  is  the  term  applied  to  feeding  off  the  aftermath 
of  mowing  lands,  a  practice  which  is  very  prevalent, 
arid  justified  by  experienced  farmers  rather  on  the  plea 
of  necessity  than  any  other,  since  most  farmers,  of  care- 
ful observation,  admit  that  it  is,  on  the  whole,  injurious. 
A  large  proportion  of  those  who  are  in  the  habit  of  fall- 

(351) 


352  OPINIONS    OF    FARMERS. 

feeding  speak  like  the  following,  from  a  practical  farmer, 
who  says :  "  I  feed  off  slightly,  although  it  would  prob- 
ably be  better  for  the  next  crop  if  I  did  not.  My  cows, 
however,  like  it,  and,  as  they  pay  me  well  at  the  milk- 
pail,  I  like  to  see  them  enjoy  themselves."  Another, 
in  answer  to  the  questions  of  the  circular,  "  Do  you 
feed  off  the  after-growth  of  your  mowing  lands  in  the 
fall  ?  Do  you  think  it  an  injury  or  a  benefit  to  the 
field  to  feed  it  off?"  says,  "I  do  generally,  but  con- 
sider it  an  injury  to  the  field."  Another  says :  "  I  do 
feed  off,  moderately,  the  after-growth  of  my  mowing 
fields,  and  believe  the  grass  worth  much  more  so  fed 
than  if  left  on  the  ground  to  rot.  A  dense  mass  of 
dead  grass  is  also  much  in  the  way  of  the  scythe  and 
the  rake,  the  next  year."  A  practical  farmer  in  another 
section  of  the  country  says :  "  I  feed  off  the  after- 
growth of  mowing  lands  only  when  I  am  compelled  to 
do  so  in  dry  seasons,  for  want  of  pasture.  I  think  it  an 
injury  to  feed  off,  unless  there  is  a  large  growth,  which 
is  better  to  be  eaten,  so  that  it  will  not  fall  dow.n  and 
heat  the  roots  and  kill  them." 

Another  says  :  "  I  feed  my  mowing  lands  in  the  fall, 
and  think  it  is  a  benefit  to  the  field  in  all  cases  wliere  a 
top-dressing  is  used,  and  of  no  injury  to  an  old  field 
that  is  ploughed  once  in  three  or  four  years.  Where  a 
large  growth  of  after-feed  remains  on  the  land,  it  is  like 
mulching  trees, — kills  the  grass-roots  and  makes  a  grand 
shelter  in  winter  for  mice."  Another  farmer  says  :  "  I 
feed  it  off  and  then  top-dress  it,  and  think  it  a  benefit 
to  the  land,  but  should  consider  it  an  injury  if  I  did  not 
top-dress."  An  experienced  practical  farmer  writes  me 
as  follows  :  "  I  feed  it  off,  but  think  it  an  injury  to  the 
field  to  do  so,  and  I  should  much  prefer  not  to  feed 
mowing  lands  at  all.  The  grass  holds  in  longer,  and  is 
of  better  quality.  I  feed  it  off  because  it  is  necessary 


PRACTICE    AND    EXPERIENCE.  353 

to  eke  out  a  comfortable  support  for  my  stock."  And 
another :  "  To  some  extent.  I  do  not  think  it  bene- 
ficial to  the  land  to  feed  much  every  year,  nor  very 
injurious  to  feed  some ;  but  to  feed  close  I  deem  highly 
injurious."  A  very  experienced  farmer,  of  large  obser- 
vation, writes  me :  "  To  some  extent  I  feed  it  off,  not 
from  choice,  but  convenience.  The  treading  of  the 
cattle  is  some  injury,  and  they  feed  on  the  best  kinds 
of  grass,  and  leave  the  wild  grasses  to  extend  the  area 
of  their  growth.  In  my  experience,  mowing  grounds 
are  kept  in  the  best  condition  by  taking  off  the  first  and 
second  crops  with  the  scythe,  and  biennially  dressing 
with  compost  manures." 

This  accords  with  the  experience  of  another  practical 
farmer,  who  says :  "  My  practice  is  to  feed  the  after- 
growth or  mow  it.  To  take  all  from  the  soil  without 
returning  an  equivalent,  would  be  injurious.  My  cus- 
tom is  to  top-dress  my  mowing  grounds  with  good 
compost  manure,  about  fifteen  cart-loads  to  the  acre, 
once  in  two  or  three  years,  —  a  portion  of  lots  in  one 
year,  and  a  portion  the  next.  Where  the  ground  is  not 
liable  to  wash — carry  the  manure  off — I  prefer  spread- 
ing the  manure  in  the  autumn  ;  it  is  dissolved  by  the 
fall  rains  and  winter  snows,  and  the  grass  is  benefited 
in  the  early  spring." 

An  experienced  farmer  in  another  section  says  : 
"  Farmers  here  are  in  the  habit  of  feeding  off  their 
mowing  lands  in  the  fall,  but  have  no  doubt  that  the 
crop  of  grass  would  be  better,  the  next  season,  not  to 
feed  them.  Some  think  the  injury  not  so  great  as  the 
value  of  the  feed  of  the  after-growth."  —  "  I  have  had 
considerable  experience  in  both  ways,"  writes  an  intelli- 
gent farmer,  "  and  do  not  think  fall  feeding  is  any  injury, 
if  it  is  not  fed  too  close  ;  prefer  feeding  to  mowing  the 
second  crop,  and  feeding  with  sheep  rather  than  cattle." 
30* 


354  EFFECT    OF    FALL     FEEDIXO. 

And  another:  "The  feeding  of  dry  mowing  injures  it 
by  causing  it  to  run  out,  leaving  the  roots  exposed  to 
the  winter,  while  moist  land  is  injured  by  the  cattle's 
feet  much  more  than  the  value  of  the  feed,  in  both  cases 
taking  all  off,  and  leaving  nothing  to  renovate  the  land 
another  season." 

An  experienced  farmer  in  one  of  the  best  grazing 
towns  of  Massachusetts  says :  "  It  is  now  more  than 
twenty  years  since  I  have  allowed  any  kind  of  domestic 
animal  to  feed  upon  our  mown  lands,  and  my  opinion 
previously  has  been  fully  confirmed  by  my  experience. 
It  is  a  decided  benefit  to  let  the  after-growth  remain 
upon  the  land  ;  it  is  a  protection  from  summer's  drought 
and  winter's  cold.  Some  of  my  neighbors  are  following 
my  example."  And  another  :  "  I  sometimes  feed  off  my 
after-grass.  When  I  do  feed  it  off,  I  take  good  care  to 
feed  it  early,  and  leave  a  good  growth  to  protect  the 
roots  of  the  grass  from  frost  in  winter.  I  think  it  an 
injury  to  feed  ;  mowings  will  last  longer  not  to  be  fed 
at  all,  and  the  land  when  broken  up  will  produce  a  bet- 
ter crop  of  corn  or  potatoes  than  if  fed." 

From  these  extracts  it  will  appear  that  the  practice 
of  fall  feeding  is  very  general,  while  the  good  judgment 
of  practical  farmers  almost  unanimously  condemns  it  as 
injurious,  especially  to  feed  closely  and  late  in  the  sea. 
son.  The  reasons  assigned  for  the  practice  are,  chiefly, 
the  necessity  generally  felt  for  feed  at  that  season  of 
the  year,  and  the  importance,  in  some  situations,  —  par- 
ticularly on  interval  lands,  —  of  removing  all  protection 
for  the  mice,  which  frequently  prove  very  destructive 
to  the  roots  when  buried  with  the  snow  in  winter.  All 
condemn  the  practice  of  too  close  feeding,  under  all 
circumstances. 

The  fall  growth  collects  the  elements  of  a  thrifty 
growth  in  the  following  spring.  These  are  stored  up 


IMPROVEMENT  OP  PASTURES.        355 

in  the  roots  over  winter  for  the  early  use  of  the  plant. 
If  it  is  closely  fed,  the  spring  growth  must  be  propor- 
tionally later  and  feebler. 

But  one  of  the  most  important  questions  which  the 
farmer  in  the  older  sections  of  the  country  has  to  meet 
is  the  proper  treatment  of  his  pasture  lands.  Many  of 
our  old  pastures  have  been  stocked  hard,  time  out  of 
mind,  and  the  grasses  in  them  have  been  literally 
starved  out,  and  grow  thin  of  necessity,  while,  as  the 
finer  and  nutritious  grasses  disappear,  nature  very 
kindly  covers  up  the  nakedness  of  the  soil  with  moss, 
as  an  evidence  of  the  effect,  and  not  the  cause,  of 
poverty.  They  are  said  to  be  "  worn  "  or  "  run  out." 
Many  of  them  are  grown  over  with  bushes  and  briers, 
and  other  equally  worthless  pests,  till  they  carry  but 
one  animal  to  four  or  five  acres,  and  often  require  twice 
that  amount  to  keep  an  animal  on  foot,  to  say  nothing 
of  fattening  him.  It  is  a  well-known  saying,  that  "  poor 
pastures  make  breach}7  cattle." 

Undoubtedly,  thousands  of  acres  in  the  older  states 
would  be  far  more  profitably  covered  with  pines  than 
with  cattle,  and  many  an  observing  farmer  is  now  con- 
vinced of  this  fact ;  but  still  we  must  have  pasture 
lands,  and  there  are  circumstances  where  it  becomes 
important  to  improve  them,  and  increase  their  produc- 
tiveness. Some  of  them  are  so  situated  that  they  can 
be  ploughed,  and  thus  brought  in,  with  other  cultivated 
lands,  to  the  general  rotation ;  and  where  this  can  be 
done,  it  may  be,  on  the  whole,  the  best  and  most  eco- 
nomical mode  of  improving  them. 

In  answer  to  the  circular  on  a  preceding  page,  an 
intelligent  farmer  writes  me :  "  I  have  renovated  my 
old  pasture  land  by  pulling  up  the  bushes  by  the  roots, 
scarifying  the  foul  or  mossy  places  with  the  harrow, 
and  sowing  on  grass-seed  and  clover,  both  red  and 


356  OLD     PASTURE    LANDS. 

white."  Another  says,  in  answer  to  question  16, — 
What  is  the  best  mode  of  renovating  old,  worn-out  pas- 
tures?—  "Plough,  manure,  and  re-seed.  Some  have 
sown  rye  with  the  grass-seed,  and  then  let  the  stock 
feed  on  the  rye,  as  it  will  not  produce  any  seed-stalks. 
It  sometimes  lasts  three  years.  This  method  has  been 
put  in  practice  with  marked  success.  On  our  hills, 
ground  plaster  or  gypsum  has  brought  in  the  white 
clover  the  next  year  after  sowing."  Another  practical 
fanner  says :  "  The  best  method  I  have  found  is  to 
plough  in  forty  loads  of  good  stable  manure  to  the  acre, 
plant,  hoe,  and  kill  the  bushes  and  moss,  then  seed  down 
with  redtop  and  white  clover,  instead  of  taking  a  crop 
of  rye  without  adding  anything  to  the  soil,  then  seeding 
down  with  'barn  chaff/  as  many  do;"  while  an  ex- 
perienced farmer  of  another  section  says :  "  If  the  pas- 
ture lands  can  be  ploughed,  do  it  in  the  month  of  June, 
say  seven  inches  deep,  harrow  thoroughly,  sow  one 
hundred  pounds  of  Peruvian  guano  and  three  pecks  of 
buckwheat  per  acre,  harrowing  them  in  at  the  same 
time.  Sow  as  much  grass-seed  and  of  the  kind  best 
adapted  to  the  soil  as  you  please,  and  bush  it  in. 
I  have  tried  twenty  acres  at  a  time  with  good  suc- 
cess." 

Another  writes  me  as  follows,  in  answer  to  question 
16:  "It  can  be  done  in  various  ways.  I  have  a  pieco 
of  pasture  land  near  my  house  that  bore  hardly  a  spire 
of  grass,  and  nothing  else,  except  five-finger  and  other 
weeds  that  usually  grow  on  old,  worn-out  pine  plains, 
and  I  commenced  twenty-four  years  ago  by  sowing 
Timothy  and  redtop,  and  a  bushel  and  a  half  of  plaster 
of  Paris  per  acre,  once  in  two  years,  up  to  this  time  ; 
the  grass  increased  from  year  to  year,  so  as  to  cover 
most  of  the  land  in  thirteen  years.  Ten  years  ago  I 
commenced  ploughing  it.  I  ploughed  about  one  acre, 


HOW  TO  RENOVATE  PASTURES.       357 

and  put  on  fifteen  loads  of  compost  manure,  and  planted 
it  with  corn.  I  sowed  it  down  in  the  fall  with  rye, 
Timothy,  and  redtop,  and  sowed  clover  in  the  spring, 
and  about  a  bushel  and  a  half  of  plaster  of  Paris  per 
acre.  The  next  year  I  ploughed  another  part,  and 
manured  it  the  same,  except  that  I  planted  this  with 
melons,  dunged  in  the  hill,  seven  feet  apart,  and  then 
sowed  it  down  in  the  fall  the  same  as  the  other  piece. 
The  next  year  I  took  up  the  remainder,  and  all  the 
manure  I  put  on  the  piece,  except  in  the  hill,  was  the 
water  carted  on  it  from  a  hole  in  my  barn-yard.  It  was 
immediately  ploughed  under,  then  holed  and  dunged  in 
the  hill  seven  feet  apart;  planted  with  melons,  and  in 
the  fall  sowed  as  the  other  parts.  Since  that  it  has  con- 
tinued to  bear  very  large  grass.  When  I  have  turned 
my  cattle  into  it,  the  first  of  June,  I  have  judged,  and 
others  who  have  seen  it,  that,  had  I  not  pastured  it,  I 
might  have  cut  a  ton  to  the  acre.  The  soil  of  this  piece 
consists  mostly  of  sand,  resting  upon  a  subsoil  of  gravel. 
Most  of  our  pastures  are  spoiled  by  feeding  off  too 
early  in  the  spring,  and  over-stocking.  Cattle  should 
not  be  turned  in  till  the  first  of  June,  and  then  not 
over-stocked  ;  so  that  there  will  always  be  spots  of 
grass  to  go  to  seed,  which  will  keep  the  pasture  well 
stocked  with  grass.  Always  keep  your  pasture  stocked 
with  grass.  If  you  cannot  keep  it  on  any  other  way, 
sow  on  Timothy  and  redtop,  and  harrow  it  in,  once  a 
year.  I  prefer  to  do  it  in  August ;  but  any  other  month 
in  which  you  are  most  at  leisure  will  do." 

Another  experienced  farmer  says :  "  Old  pastures 
should  be  ploughed  and  planted  when  they  are  not  too 
rough  for  those  operations.  They  may  then  be  seeded 
down  in  July  among  corn  or  beans,  or  grain  may  be 
sown  with  the  grass-seed  in  the  following  spring.  But 
we  have  too  much  rough  pasture  unfit  for  the  plough. 


358  PRACTICAL     EXPERIENCE. 

It  should  never  have  been  cleared  for  pasturing,  but 
should  have  been  left  to  run  to  wood.  Such  rough 
lands  are  often  much  improved  by  sowing  plaster  at  the 
rate  of  .two  hundred  pounds  per  acre.  Plaster  gene- 
rally works  well  on  clays  and  clayey  loams,  which  are 
not  wet."  And  another:  "  Where  I  have  ploughed  and 
planted  old  pastures,  and  then  seeded  anew,  the  cattle 
get  a  much  better  living."  One  of  the  best  farmers  of 
my  acquaintance,  in  reply  to  the  same  question,  says : 
"  Either  by  ploughing,  rolling,  and  sowing  down  grass- 
seed  and  grain  in  September  or  April,  or  ploughing  in 
manure,  after  removing  the  crop  on  old  ground,  and 
cross  plough  in  the  spring,  then  spread  and  harrow  in 
guano,  at  the  rate  of  three  hundred  pounds  per  acre,  or 
a  good  dressing  of  compost,  and  sow  Rhode  Island  bent, 
or  redtop,  and  white  and  red  clover,  with  some  variety 
of  grain  ;  or  by  scarifying  mossy  ground,  and  sowing  in 
grass-seed  and  harrowing  it,  then  applying  three  hun- 
dred pounds  of  guano,  or  one  bushel  and  one  peck  of 
salt,  or  ashes  from  ten  to  twenty  bushels  per  acre, 
harrow  and  bush  the  ground.  Sow  early  in  fall  or 
spring." 

A  farmer,  who  has  lived  and  had  a  large  observation 
in  England,  says  :  "  Some  farmers  say  the  plough.  But 
in  England,  where  old  pastures  are  seldom  broken  up,  I 
have  known  extraordinary  results  from  top-dressing 
with  crushed  bones,  more  particularly  on  the  large 
dairy  farms  in  Cheshire.  I  am  sorry  I  cannot  give  you 
the  quantities.  A  neighbor  of  mine  has  harrowed  an 
old,  worn-out  pasture,  dressed  with  a  liberal  coating  of 
Barilla  ashes,  from  six  to  seven  cords  per  acre,  and 
sowed  white  clover,  and  rolled  it.  It  came  out  a  beau- 
tiful pasture.  The  brush  harrow  and  roller,  applied  to 
all  grass  land  in  the  spring,  will  amply  repay  for  the 
labor.  Breaking  and  spreading  the  cattle  droppings  on 


USE    OF    PLASTER.  359 

the  pasture  land  is  well  worth  attending  to."  The 
methods  of  renovating  pastures  by  top-dressing  will  be 
alluded  to  hereafter. 

A  farmer  of  Massachusetts  says,  in  answer  to  the  six- 
teenth question  of  the  circular: 

"  This  depends  on  the  kind  of  land  to  be  reclaimed. 
If  it  can  be  ploughed,  I  would  plough  it  and  plant  it 
with  potatoes  or  something  else,  to  make  it  mellow  and 
fine,  and  then  sow  it  to  grass.  If  it  is  too  rough  or 
stony  to  plough,  —  which  is  the  case  with  a  large  share 
of  the  pasturing  in  this  section,  —  but  is  good,  sweet, 
warm  land,  I  would  feed  it  with  sheep.  I  have  a  pas- 
ture of  this  description,  that,  a  few  years  ago,  was 
covered  with  briers  and  bushes  so  thick  that  there  was 
but  very  little  grass  upon  it.  I  cut  off  the  bushes,  arid 
put  on  sheep  enough  to  eat  everything  that  grew  upon 
it  for  four  or  five  years.  They  have  killed  all  the 
briers,  and  most  of  the  bushes.  I  have  sowed  some 
plaster  of  Paris,  which  is  all  I  have  done  to  it,  and  now 
one  acre  is  worth  and  will  produce  more  feed  than 
three  would  ten  years  ago.  I  should  say  that  my  sheep 
have  always  done  well  on  this  pasture.  If  the  land  is 
cold  and  wet,  and  inclined  to  grow  bushes,  I  let  it 
go,  and  never  try  to  reclaim  it,  unless  it  is  near  the 
buildings,  or  near  the  village,  where  the  land  is  very 
high.  In  that  case  it  may  pay  to  ditch  and  work  it 
into  good  smooth  land." 

Another  practical  farmer,  of  great  experience,  says  : 
"  We  have  a  variety  of  soil  in  this  town ;  some  of  the 
best  of  pasture  lands,  stony  soils,  generally  clay  sub- 
soil. Plaster  of  Paris  is  our  renovator  for  pasturage. 
It  works  most  admirably  on  almost  all  of  our  lands. 
Two  hundred  pounds  to  the  acre,  applied  once  in  two 
or  three  years,  in  early  spring,  will  keep  our  pastures 
good."  And  another  :  "  The  best  method  I  have  ever 


3GO  RUNNING    UP    TO    WOOD. 

used  is  to  fence  in  small  pieces,  and  then  stock  hard 
with  sheep.  Feed  it  down  till  no  green  thing  remains ; 
then  turn  the  sheep  off  days  and  on  nights  till  Septem- 
ber ;  then  harrow  the  land  with  a  sharp  harrow,  and 
sow  on  grass-seed,  keeping  the  cattle  off  the  remainder 
of  the  season." 

"  It  will  improve  an  old  pasture  merely  to  plough  and 
re-seed  it,  without  manure,"  says  another;  "  but  this  is 
a  slow  mode,  and  not  to  be  recommended  where  it  is 
possible  to  apply  some  sort  of  dressing.  A  better 
method  is,  without  doubt,  to  plant  for  a  year  or  two, 
manuring  well,  before  sowing  grass-seed.  The  soil,  by 
being  thus  thoroughly  stirred  and  exposed  to  atmos- 
pheric influences,  will  give  a  sweeter  grass,  and  per- 
haps more  of  it.  But  it  is  not  always  convenient  to 
plant  a  part  of  a  pasture.  In  such  cases  great  benefit 
would  result  from  simply  ploughing,  manuring,  and 
seeding  to  grass  immediately." 

But  perhaps  the  best  disposition  that  can  be  made  of 
many  of  our  poor,  thin  pasture  lands,  and  one  which 
has  incidentally  been  alluded  to,  is  to  take  the  cattle 
from  them  entirely,  and  cultivate  them  with  forest 
trees.  This  is  frequently  recommended,  in  answer  to 
the  question  proposed  in  the  circular.  One  farmer 
speaks  in  the  following  words  :  "  Old,  worn-out  pasture 
lands,  that  cannot  be  renovated  by  gypsum  or  ashes, 
had  better  be  suffered  to  run  up  to  wood.  Pine  lands 
can  be  seeded  in  the  fall  with  a  crop  of  winter  rye,  or 
without.  Pine-seed  can  be  obtained  by  taking  pains  to 
collect  the  burrs  before  they  are  open,  and  drying  them 
in  some  place  where  they  can  be  threshed.  This  is 
white-pine-seed  year." 

This,  I  am  convinced,  will  be  found  to  be  perfectly 
practicable,  and  a  rapid  growth  of  pine  wood,  inter- 
mixed, as  it  should  always  be,  with  some  deciduous 


CULTURE    OF    PINES.  361 

growth,  like  the  white  birch,  will  be  found  to  be  more 
profitable  than  the  use  to  which  pastures  are  now  gene- 
rally put. 

I  know  many  pastures,  of  good,  strong  soil,  never 
ploughed  within  the  memory  of  the  living,  some  of 
which  are  known  not  to  have  been  ploughed  for  a 
hundred  and  fifty  years,  which  require  from  eight  to 
ten  acres  to  a  cow,  so  entirely  buried  are  they  in  moss 
and  bushes.  Such  lands  can  be  planted  with  pines  at  a 
small  cost,  and  would  soon  be  covered  with  a  growth 
which  would  pay  a  large  percentage  on  the  outlay. 

I  have  examined  over  a  thousand  acres  of  cultivated 
pines,  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  varying  in  age 
from  three  months  to  twenty  years,  and  can  testify  to 
the  surprising  rapidity  with  which  such  a  plantation 
will  cover  the  ground,  concealing  the  fact  of  their 
being  planted  by  the  hand  of  man,  and  assuming  the 
appearance  of  a  dense  forest. 

In  one  instance,  the  owner  informed  me  that  his  plan- 
tation had  averaged  him  a  cord  to  the  acre  every  year, 
for  twenty  years,  during  which  it  had  been  planted, 
while  the  land,  a  light,  barren  sand,  had  apparently  been 
improved,  and  a  thick  undergrowth  of  hard  wood  was 
evidently  ready  to  succeed  the  pine,  when  the  oppor- 
tunity offered.  I  have  seen  a  growth  of  pitch  pine, 
made  in  one  year,  of  over  two  feet  six  inches  in  length, 
by  measurement,  and  a  growth  of  white  pine,  made  in 
the  same  time,  of  two  feet  nine  inches.  The  growth  of 
wood  is  generally  interrupted  by  the  drought,  during 
the  hottest  months  of  summer,  and  then  starts  out  a 
new  growth  in  the  autumn  ;  but,  in  very  moist  seasons, 
it  continues,  with  extraordinary  vigor,  all  through  the 
season.  The  average  growth  would  not,  of  course, 
equal  that  stated  above. 

But  still  there  are  circumstances,  and  they  are  not  by 
81 


362          TREATMENT  OF  PASTURES. 

any  means  unfrequent,  where  it  is  both  practicable  and 
desirable  to  take  other  methods  of  improvements  for 
pasture  and  grass  lands. 

The  idea  was  formerly  entertained  that  pasture  lands 
were  sufficiently  enriched  by  the  animals  which  fed 
them.  Practical  men  begin  to  think  otherwise  ;  for  it 
is  found  that  a  profitable  return  is  made  for  the  little 
outlay  which  they  require.  Particularly  is  this  the  case 
with  pastures  fed  by  milch  cows.  They  do  not  return 
the  essential  elements  of  the  plant  to  the  ground  in  so 
large  a  proportion  to  what  they  take  from  it  as  some 
other  animals.  These  elements  are  required  in  great 
quantities  to  form  their  milk,  while  in  other  animals 
they  are  required  only  to  form  bone  and  muscle.  The 
manure  made  by  cows  is,  therefore,  less  valuable  and 
fertilizing  than  that  of  some  other  animals.  The  con- 
sequence is,  that  lands  fed  wholly  by  cows  are  exhausted 
sooner  than  those  fed  by  other  animals.  For  it  is  evi- 
dent that  where  more  is  taken  from  the  soil  than  is 
returned,  exhaustion  must  follow. 

We  furnish  animal  and  vegetable  matters  to  the  earth 
to  supply  it  with  substances  which  the  growth  of  plants 
has  taken  from  it.  It  will  be  obvious,  on  a  moment's 
reflection,  that  the  constituent  parts  of  the  plant  are 
taken  up  from  the  earth  and  the  air,  in  somewhat  the 
same  manner  as  our  food  and  drink  become  our  bone  and 
flesh.  The  analogy  is  still  more  distinct  when  we  reflect 
that  all  our  applications  for  the  improvement  of  the  soil 
are  nothing  more  than  the  supply  of  food  for  plants. 
For  the  food  of  plants  is  found  in  all  manures,  and  the 
value  of  these  depends  upon  the  quantity  they  contain. 

The  methods  of  renovating  mowing  and  pasture  lands 
by  means  of  top-dressings  do  not  essentially  differ.  An 
interesting  experiment  fell  under  my  observation  not 
long  ago,  where  common  meadow  mud,  rich  barn  and 


MIXTURE    OF    SOILS.  363 

liquid  manure  impregnated  with  lime,  were  used  as  a  top- 
dressing  on  different  parts  of  the  same  field.  The  mud 
was  hauled  out  in  the  autumn  and  thrown  in  heaps,  and 
there  left  to  the  action  of  the  frosts  and  snows  of  win- 
ter. In  spring  it  was  spread  about  the  same  time  the 
other  manure  was  applied.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the 
top  to  which  the  mud  was  applied  appeared  to  far  the 
best  advantage.  The  grass  was  heavier,  and,  after  the 
crop  had  been  removed,  that  part  of  the  field  on  which 
the  mud  was  applied  came  in  more  quickly  and  luxu- 
riantly than  the  rest.  This  field  was  a  light,  gravelly 
soil,  which  had  not  been  under  very  high  cultivation. 

Many  of  our  soils  are  gravelly,  with  a  mixture  of 
sand.  These  soils  need  a  mixture  of  marl  and  meadow 
mud.  Marl  and  mud  contain  the  carbonate,  or  in  some 
cases  the  sulphate  of  lime,  or  plaster  of  Paris,  and  often 
a  mixture  of  clay,  which  sandy  or  gravelly  soils  need. 
On  these  soils  clayey  mud  has  been  found  to  do  the 
best.  Peat  mud  is  a  rich  vegetable  food ;  and  if  a 
small  proportion  of  potash,  or  ashes,  be  added,  it  is  val- 
uable as  a  manure. 

Light  soils  are  always  improved  by  any  substances 
which  make  them  firmer  and  more  compact.  Stiff  clay 
soils,  on  the  other  hand,  are  benefited  by  applications 
which  make  them  lighter  and  more  permeable.  No  one 
of  the  three  kinds  of  earth,  sand,  clay,  and  lime,  when 
unmixed  with  the  other  varieties,  would  be  capable  of 
supporting  vegetation.  The  mixture  of  them,  when  any 
one  predominates,  will  correct  and  improve  them;  since 
it  is  well  known  that  the  fertility  of  soils  depends  upon 
the  relative  proportions  of  their  different  constituents. 
In  some  marls  the  clay  predominates,  and  these  should 
be  used  on  the  light,  sandy  soils  ;  in  others,  the  sand 
predominates,  and  these  are  adapted  to  stiffer  lands. 
The  practice  of  mixing  soils  has  always  been  attended 


364  TEXTURE    OP    THE    SOIL. 

with  success  when  judiciously  managed,  and  it  offers  a 
practicable  means  of  improvement. 

Nor  is  this  application  of  mud  and  clay  any  new  fact 
to  the  practical  agriculturist.  The  county  of  Norfolk, 
in  England,  is  said  to  owe  much  of  its  great  fertility  to 
this  source.  The  greatest  European  improvements  in 
sandy  soils  have  been  made  by  these  means  in  Belgium. 
As  intimated  in  the  experiment  alluded  to,  it  has  always 
been  found  best  to  expose  the  mud  or  clay  to  the  action 
of  the  frost.  It  becomes  mellowed  so  that  it  may  be 
spread  evenly  upon  the  ground.  Peat  mud  is  composed 
of  vegetable  matter  which  has  been  accumulating  for 
ages.  When  taken  fresh  it  is  found  to  contain  an 
amount  of  acid  which  would  make  it  improper  for  im- 
mediate use.  Exposure  to  the  frost,  wind,  and  rain, 
will,  in  time,  entirely  neutralize  the  acid  properties. 
Ashes,  or  potash,  would  have  the  same  effect  in  a  much 
shorter  time. 

These  substances  may  be  said  rather  to  ameliorate 
and  improve  the  texture  of  soils  than  to  furnish  imme- 
diate sustenance  to  the  plant.  And  in  this  view  they 
cannot  be  too  strongly  recommended ;  for  we  have 
never  known  them  to  fail  of  having  beneficial  effects, 
both  on  pasture  and  mowing  lands.  And,  besides,  the 
application  of  them  is  so  simple,  so  much  within  the 
reach  of  every  farmer,  that  it  is  well  worth  the  trial. 
If  the  soils  are  much  worn,  or  very  barren  from  a  great 
preponderance  of  any  particular  earth,  a  liberal  allow- 
ance will  be  required ;  but,  ordinarily,  as  in  the  experi- 
ments which  have  come  under  my  notice,  some  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  cart-loads  to  the  acre  have  been  found 
sufficient  to  increase  very  greatly  the  productiveness 
of  the  land,  while  a  still  less  quantity  would  be  of  essen- 
tial service.  Nor  is  the  expense  of  this  application  so 
great  as  some  imagine  ;  for  almost  every  farm  contains  a 


USE    OF    LIME.  365 

quantity  of  waste  peat  meadow,  and  clay  is  frequently 
near  at  hand.  It  may  be  removed  and  prepared  at  a 
season  of  the  year  when  there  is  but  little  else  to  do. 
The  expense,  therefore,  need  not  deter  any  one  from 
its  use. 

But  there  is  another  substance  equally  accessible, 
which  acts  both  as  an  ameliorator  and  a  fertilizer  of 
the  soil.  It  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the  cheapest  and  most 
profitable  top-dressings.  It  is  the  rich  loam  which 
accumulates  in  the  holes  by  the  road-side,  and  wherever 
the  wash  gathers  from  hills.  Every  one  has  observed 
the  effect  of  the  loam  thrown  out  upon  the  grass  in 
ploughing.  The  grass  along  the  edges  soon  becomes 
greener  in  spring,  and  grows  with  greater  luxuriance. 
The  wash  by  the  road-side  would  have  a  far  more  power- 
ful effect.  For  this  contains,  besides  the  putrescent  ani- 
mal matters  from  the  road,  a  quantity  of  fine  sand,  which 
rich  soils,  wanting  closeness  and  consistency,  require  on 
the  surface.  Spread  upon  such  soils  when  covered  with 
grass,  it  is  very  efficacious,  and  often  makes  the  vegeta- 
tion as  vigorous  as  stimulating  manure.  Experiments 
have  clearly  shown  that  the  effect  of  sand  on  some  soils 
is  to  operate  as  a  manure. 

Among  the  mineral  manures,  lime  has  sometimes  been 
used  as  a  top-dressing.  Its  effect  arises  not  so  much 
from  any  direct  nutriment  furnished  by  it  to  the  grass, 
as  from  its  influence  on  the  substances  in  the  soil.  It 
hastens  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  and  mineral 
matters  in  the  earth ;  and  in  this  way  it  may  be  said  to 
renew  exhausted  soils.  It  increases  the  temperature 
of  cold,  sour  lands,  after  being  drained,  and  causes  a 
rapid  decay  of  peat  substances.  Hence  its  use  in  the 
compost  heap.  It  destroys  the  mosses  and  coarse  herb- 
age which  work  in  among  the  grasses,  and  indicate  the 
want  of  lime  in  the  soil.  It  produces  from  them  a  fine 
31* 


36G  EFFECT    OF    LIME. 

vegetable  mould,  by  causing  the  white  and  red  clover, 
and  some  natural  grasses,  to  come  in  thicker  and  thicker 
each  year.  Lime  produces  a  more  marked  effect  on  the 
grasses  than  on  any  other  crop.  It  seems,  very  fre- 
quently, to  increase  the  nutritive  quality  of  the  grasses, 
as  well  as  to  increase  their  quantity,  by  assisting  them 
to  elaborate  the  juices,  the  albuminous  substances,  and 
the  sugar,  in  which  their  value  as  food  for  stock  largely 
consists. 

But  lime  can  never  supply  the  place  of  other  manures. 
There  are  properties  which  it  cannot  supply,  which  plas- 
ter can  ;  others  which  it  cannot  supply,  as  bones  can ; 
and  others  which  it  cannot  supply,  like  ashes,  and  ma- 
nures that  contain  salts.  There  are  situations,  however, 
in  which  it  is  invaluable.  On  reclaimed  meadow  lands, 
after  thorough  draining,  and  a  covering  of  three  or  four 
inches  of  gravel,  a  top-dressing  of  lime  has  a  beneficial 
effect.  Crops  of  grass  of  two  and  three  tons  to  the 
acre  have  been  taken  after  such  a  dressing  of  lime.  In 
many  cases  the  first  crop  will  repay  the  expense  of 
bringing  such  land  into  cultivation.  In  these  situations, 
then,  as  well  as  on  many  pastures,  it  may  be  called  one 
of  the  most  useful  applications  that  can  be  made.  Such 
lands  will  bear  an  abundant  supply  of  lime  without 
exhaustion.  But  on  poor,  sandy  soils  it  should  never 
be  used.  It  will  soon  exhaust  and  may  render  them 
completely  barren.  When  it  meets  with  clay  in  lands 
to  which  it  is  applied,  it  forms  a  kind  of  marl,  and 
greatly  improves  the  texture  of  the  soil  :  but,  when  it 
comes  in  contact  with  sand,  it  forms,  rather,  a  sort  of 
mortar.  Hence  it  is  thought  to  be  injurious  on  sandy 
Roils.  Many  soils  have  naturally  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
lime,  and  on  these  a  further  application  is  not  needed. 

No  definite  rule,  with  respect  to  the  amount  required, 
can  be  given.  It  must  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the 


USE    OP    ASHES.  367 

soil,  and  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  those  who  use 
it.  In  general,  on  peat  and  clay  soils,  from  ten  to  fifty 
bushels  to  the  acre  will  be  required,  though  less  would, 
perhaps,  be  beneficial. 

The  addition  of  lime  to  the  compost  heap  is  often  of 
great  importance.  The  decay  of  all  vegetable  sub- 
stances is  accelerated  by  it ;  but  it  should  not  be 
brought  in  contact  with  decaying  or  fermenting  animal 
substances,  unless  covered  by  a  thick  coating  of  peat  or 
other  absorbent.  Whenever  lime  is  used  in  a  compost, 
—  unless  it  be  for  the  special  purpose  of  hastening  the 
fermentation  of  vegetable  substances,  —  it  ought  to  be 
mixed  with  salt,  by  dissolving  the  salt  first  in  water  and 
slacking  the  lime  with  it.  A  bushel  of  salt  will  thus 
prepare  four  bushels  of  lime.  Refuse  brine  will  answer 
very  well. 

We  come  now  to  the  use  of  ashes  as  a  top-dressing. 
Of  this  we  may  speak  with  more  confidence  ;  for,  while 
experiments  with  lime  have  not  invariably  proved  suc- 
cessful, owing,  probably,  to  the  soils  designed  to  be 
benefited,  we  know  of  no  instances  in  which  the  appli- 
cation of  ashes  has  not  fully  repaid  the  expense.  If 
farmers  would  bear  in  mind  that  ashes  contain  most 
of  the  elements  which  assist  plant-growth,  they  would 
be  unwilling  to  part  with  a  substance  which  they  might 
turn  to  such  profit.  If  the  quantity  is  small,  let  it  be 
husbanded  with  the  greater  care,  instead  of  being  sold, 
with  the  idea  that  so  few  can  do  no  good.  One  sub- 
stantial farmer  says :  "  I  am  now,  more  than  ever,  fully 
persuaded  of  the  value  of  ashes  as  a  manure.  Nothing 
in  the  whole  catalogue  of  manures  compares  with  them 
on  my  land.  The  soil  was  a  thin,  clayey  loam,  and 
where  the  ashes  were  sown  there  was  a  crop  of  excel- 
lent clover,  where  for  years  the  land  had  been  almost 
unproductive." 


368     LEACHED  AND  UNLEACHED  ASHES. 

Grasses  are  often  more  benefited  by  ashes  than  other 
crops,  since  they  require  a  greater  amount  of  the  salts 
which  ashes  contain.  For  all  permanent  mowing  lands, 
especially  on  the  lighter  soils,  ashes  are  among  the 
cheapest  of  manures,  where  they  can  be  had  in  sufficient 
quantities.  In  parts  of  Flanders  and  Belgium,  countries 
in  which  the  science  of  agriculture  has  been  carried  to 
a  high  perfection,  the  great  loss  of  inorganic  matters 
from  the  soil  is  constantly  restored  by  ashes  or  bones, 
together  with  other  manures  to  be  mentioned  hereafter. 
Indeed,  almost  all  agriculturists,  both  in  Europe  and 
America,  have  attached  very  great  importance  to  the  use 
of  ashes.  In  some  parts  of  Germany  they  are  held  in  so 
high  esteem  that  they  are  transported  to  a  distance  of 
eighteen  or  twenty  miles,  to  be  used  as  a  top-dressing. 

According  to  Professor  Liebig,  with  every  one  hun- 
dred and  ten  pounds  of  leached  ashes  of  the  common 
beech-tree,  spread  upon  the  soil,  we  furnish  as  much 
phosphate  as  five  hundred  and  seven  pounds  of  the 
richest  manures  could  yield.  Now,  phosphates  are 
highly  useful  to  all  kinds  of  soil. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  process  of  leaching 
takes  from  the  ashes  a  part  of  their  fertilizing  proper- 
ties. For  many  uses  this  is  no  objection.  Especially 
is  this  the  case  near  the  sea,  where  leached  ashes  are 
thought  by  some  to  be  even  more  serviceable,  as  the 
gas  in  the  atmosphere  the  more  readily  combines  with 
them.  Every  practical  man  has  heard  of  the  amazing 
effects  which  bone-dust  has  upon  the  soil.  Yet  this  is 
valuable  chiefly  for  the  phosphate  it  contains.  But,  if 
we  may  rely  upon  the  statement  of  Professor  Liebig. 
leached  aslios  also  contain  a  large  amount  of  phosphate 
of  lime,  which  would  show  them  to  be  extremely  valua- 
ble. But,  suppose  we  allow  four  bushels  of  leached 
ashes  to  one  bushel  of  crushed  bones,  the  expense  of 


ASHES    AND    PEAT    1ICJD.  369 

the  ashes  would,  in  most  cases,  be  less  than  the  bones. 
But,  if  bones  can  be  procured,  a  mixture  of  leached 
ashes  and  bones,  four  bushels  to  one,  forms  a  very  use- 
ful application.  The  compound  should  remain  a  week 
or  two  before  being  used. 

Those  who  have  tried  leached  ashes  have  been  fully 
satisfied  of  their  superior  qualities  as  a  fertilizer.  Care- 
ful experiments,  by  practical,  conservative  men,  show 
that  land  producing  one  ton  to  the  acre  has  been  so 
improved  by  this  means  as  to  yield  three  tons  to  the 
acre.  Where  thirty  bushels  were  used  on  three-fourths 
of  an  acre,  in  one  instance,  the  crop  was  increased  more 
than  three-fold.  Nor  are  leached  ashes  subject  to  the 
objections  which  are  raised  by  some  against  the  use  of 
lime.  They  do  not  apparently  exhaust  the  soil.  The 
effect  of  them  is  felt'  for  several  years.  Many  farmers 
have  found,  by  experience,  that  one  bushel  of  unleached 
hard-wood  ashes  is  nearly  equal  to  two  bushels  of  plas- 
ter, as  a  top-dressing  for  the  drier  grass  lands.  If  this 
be  true,  what  has  been  said  would  show  that  leached 
ashes  are  about  equal  to  plaster  in  their  effects  on  such 
lands.  A  peck  of  lime  is  commonly  used  in  leaching  a 
bushel  of  ashes.  This,  of  course,  adds  to  the  value  of 
leached  ashes  for  grasses.  They  contain,  also,  a  por- 
tion of  the  alkali  which  is  decomposed  by  the  action  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  the  water  in  the  soil  prepares  it  for 
the  food  of  plants. 

As  we  have  already  spoken  of  the  use  of  peat  mud, 
it  is  proper  here  to  say  that  ashes  may  be  mixed  with 
mud  in  the  proportion  of  six  or  eight  bushels  to  the 
cord.  The  mud  is  better,  as  usual,  dug  in  the  autumn, 
tliough  the  mixture  might  be  made  in  the  spring,  or  on 
application  to  the  soil.  If  leached  ashes  are  used,  the 
proportion  may  be  about  one  to  three.  In  this  case 
the  two  substances  mutually  assist  each  other,  and  the 


370  USE    OP    SEA-WEED. 

compound  is,  perhaps,  better  than  either  alone  would 
be.  So  potash,  added  to  peat  mud,  makes  a  valuable 
compound. 

In  this  connection  allusion  might  be  made  to  the 
practice  of  burning  sea-weed  as  a  manure,  and  spread- 
ing the  ashes  upon  grass  and  pasture  land.  They  form 
a  very  useful  and  powerful  stimulant,  but  the  process 
of  burning  causes  the  loss  of  some  of  its  most  fertiliz- 
ing qualities.  The  most  common  and  efficient  mode  of 
application  is  to  carry  it  directly  upon  the  grass  as  a 
top-dressing.  The  coarse  rock-weed  and  kelp  decay  in 
a  much  shorter  time  than  the  fine  sea-weed,  and  are  no 
doubt  far  better  than  this.  'Sea-weed  is  best  on  sandy 
or  gravelly  soils,  where  from  twenty-five  to  thirty,  or 
even  forty  cart-loads  to  the  acre,  are  sometimes  applied. 
Peat  ashes  form,  in  some  cases,  a  very  valuable  top- 
dressing  for  grass  and  pasture  lands.  In  Holland,  where 
every  fertilizer  is  preserved  with  care,  peat  ashes,  as 
well  as  wood  and  coal  ashes,  are  highly  esteemed.  The 
great  value  of  the  first  is  well  known  to  many,  and  if 
those  who  have  them  will  spread  them  upon  grass,  at 
the  rate  of  fifteen  or  twenty  bushels  on  the  lighter,  and 
thirty  or  forty  on  the  heavier  soils,  they  will  be  abun- 
dantly repaid. 

If  what  has  been  said  be  true,  —  and  it  is  the  result  of 
many  experiments,  some  of  which  have  come  directly 
under  my  own  observation,  —  farmers  would  do  better  to 
buy  ashes,  on  the  return  of  ever}7  spring,  than  to  sell 
them,  as  is  often  done  in  some  sections  of  the  country. 

Of  the  use  of  gypsum,  or  plaster  of  Paris,  the  most 
contradictory  opinions  have  been  expressed.  So  far  as 
my  observation  goes,  —  and  I  have  both  seen  and  tried 
many  interesting  experiments  on  old  pasture  soils  and 
mowing  lands,  —  the  application  to  moist  soils  has  been 
satisfactory.  It  has  been  said  that  plaster  does  not 


PLASTER    OF    PARIS.  371 

benefit  natural  pastures.  This,  I  apprehend,  depends 
chiefly  on  the  character  of  the  soil.  In  one  instance, 
within  my  knowledge,  a  'large  pasture,  which  had  be- 
come worn  and  somewhat  unproductive,  received  a 
generous  top-dressing  of  plaster.  The  grass  started 
sooner,  and  continued  throughout  the  season  to  look 
far  better,  than  the  adjoining  pastures  of  precisely  the 
same  soil.  So  far  as  could  be  ascertained,  the  increase 
in  grass  over  the  adjoining  pastures  was  about  seventy- 
five  per  cent.  Nor  was  this  all.  This  pasture  came  in 
the  next  season  with  the  greatest  luxuriance,  and  its 
load  of  beautiful  green  was  the  wonder  of  the  neighbor- 
hood. Its  effect  on  clover  and  Timothy  is  even  greater 
than  on  old  pastures.  Many  have  supposed  that  plaster 
would  exhaust  the  soil.  That  this  could  not  be  the 
case  will  appear  from  the  fact  that  it  takes  four  hundred 
and  thirty  parts  of  water  to  decompose  one  part  of 
plaster,  while  its  decomposition  is  so  slow  that  its  influ- 
ence is  felt  for  several  years.  How,  then,  can  it  have 
such  immediate  and  beneficial  effects  ?  It  is  generally 
explained  by  saying  that  it  retains  the  fertilizing  gas, 
which  is  constantly  rising  from  fermenting  vegetable 
matter,  and  gives  it  up,  at  a  proper  time,  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  the  plant.  It  does  not,  like  lime,  cause  vege- 
table matters  to  decay,  but  rather,  when  they  decay, 
holds  their  most  important  parts  from  escaping. 

The  infectious  odor  which  rises  from  decaying  vege- 
table matter,  from  the  stable,  from  the  manure  heap,  and 
imperceptibly  from  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth,  is 
one  of  the  most  important  elements  for  the  growth  of 
the  plant.  Plaster  fixes  this,  and  the  first  shower 
washes  it  into  the  earth  to  feed  the  roots  of  plants. 
The  relative  value  of  manure  depends,  in  a  measure, 
according  to  the  generally  received  opinion  on  this 
subject,  upon  the  amount  of  this  noxious  odor,  or  the 


372  OPINIONS    OF    SCIENTIFIC    MEN. 

ammonia  whicb  it  contains.  Ammonia,  commonly  known 
as  hartshorn,  is  an  exceedingly  powerful  stimulant. 
Xor  will  it  appear  unimportant,  when  we  bear  in  mind 
that  two  and  one-quarter  pounds  of  this  ammonia,  lost 
by  fermentation,  is  equal,  according  to  some,  to  the  loss 
of  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  grass  or  grain. 

Scientific  men  will  say  that  this  gas  is  taken  up  in  the 
atmosphere  by  the  rain,  and  descends  with  the  rain  to 
fertilize  the  earth;  and  this  is  probably  true.  This 
ammonia,  so  valuable,  so  indispensable  to  the  earth,  is 
not  lost  forever  when  it  flies  away  into  the  air ;  but  the 
shrewd  farmer  will  perceive  that  as  much  of  it  as  he 
allows  to  escape  from  his  own  hands,  by  neglect,  falls 
upon  and  improves  the  fields  of  his  neighbor  as  much, 
and  perhaps  more,  than  his  own.  Is  it  not  evident  that, 
by  saving  all  that  we  can,  and  by  receiving  whatever 
the  genial  rain  brings  with  it,  we  get  a  double  benefit  ? 

If  the  effect  of  plaster  is  such  as  has  been  described, 
no  one  can  fail  to  see  how  important  are  the  functions 
it  may  be  made  to  perform.  But  it  also  adds  a  certain 
amount  of  lime  and  sulphur  to  the  earth.  It  is  com- 
posed of  these  substances  for  the  most  part,  and  hence 
called  by  chemists  sulphate  of  lime.  I  shall  have  occa- 
sion to  speak  of  its  use  in  connection  with  other  ma- 
nures in  the  compost  heap,  and  I  now  allude  to  its  use 
by  itself,  simply  as  a  top-dressing. 

On  some  soils  it  is  not  so  satisfactory  as  on  other*  ; 
but  our  pastures  are,  many  of  them,  covered  with  the 
white  clover  or  honeysuckle,  and  these  are  often  called 
clover  lands.  On  all  such  lands,  whether  reserved  for 
pasture  or  mowing,  plaster  generally  has  a  wonderful 
influence.  A  bushel,  or  two  bushels,  to  the  acre,  have 
been  known  to  double  the  crop,  and  to  add  more  than 
twenty  times  its  own  weight  to  it,  while  even  greater 
results  have  followed.  For,  if  we  may  believe  Bous- 


USE    OF    CHARCOAL.  373 

singault,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  chemists,  every 
pound  of  nitrogen  which  we  add  to  the  grass  increases 
the  produce  one  hundred  and  ten  pounds;  and  this 
increased  produce  of  one  hundred  and  ten  pounds  is 
effected  by  the  aid  of  a  little  more  than  four  pounds  of 
gypsum,  or  plaster.  Another  accurate  investigator,  Sir 
Humphrey  Davy,  found,  by  actual  experiment,  that  the 
ashes  of  an  acre  of  red  clover  contain  no  less  than 
three  bushels  of  plaster  of  Paris.  This  important  fact 
proves  that  the  earth  already  contains  a  large  amount 
of  this  substance,  and  that  it  is  essential  to  the  growth 
of  clover.  This  may,  perhaps,  explain  the  so-called 
clover  sickness  in  some  land.  The  requisite  supply  of 
plaster  has  been  exhausted.  In  any  case,  the  addition 
of  plaster  to  clover  lands,  and  especially  to  pastures,  is 
of  the  highest  importance. 

The  effect  of  charcoal  is  somewhat  similar  to  that  of 
plaster.  Charcoal  will  absorb  ninety  times  its  own  bulk 
of  ammonia,  which  is  held  from  escaping  till  it  is  sep- 
arated by  water,  and  carried  into  the  earth  for  the  plant. 
When  dry,  the  operation  of  fixing  the  gas  is  repeated, 
till  the  next  shower  sends  the  gas  into  the  earth,  and 
the  particles  of  water  take  its  place  in  the  charcoal.  In 
this  way,  as  a  top-dressing,  charcoal,  as  well  as  plaster, 
performs  the  most  important  functions.  If  we  take  any 
decaying  animal  matter,  which  has  begun  to  give  off  its 
offensive  and  noxious  odor,  its  ammonia,  and  cover  it 
with  charcoal  or  plaster  of  Paris,  this  escaping  gas  is 
immediately  stopped.  No  infectious  odor  arises  from 
it.  The  decay  of  the  substance  has  suddenly  ceased. 
This  simple  fact  will  show  the  intelligent  farmer  to  what 
purposes  these  substances  may  be  applied.  His  choice 
of  these  should  depend  somewhat  on  the  expense  of 
procuring  them.  The  relative  expense  depends  so  much 
upon  circumstances,  that  I  need  not  make  the  estimate. 
32 


374  EFFECT    OF    BONES. 

As  an  absorbent  and  retainer  of  the  valuable  properties 
of  manure,  peat  mud  and  loam  will  also  be  found  of 
essential  service.  If  used  on  a  high  and  dry  soil,  the 
effect  of  plaster  will  not  be  very  apparent  the  first  sea- 
son, unless  there  are  frequent  rains. 

There  is  an  impression  among  many  that  plaster  does 
not  produce  so  good  results  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  sea-shore.  If  this  is  so,  it  does  not  arise,  prob- 
ably, from  the  proximity  to  the  sea,  but  from  other 
causes.  Many  of  our  lands  do  not  need  the  application 
of  plaster ;  but  I  have  seen  it  used,  to  the  best  advan- 
tage, within  two  miles  of  the  sea.  If  there  were  any- 
thing in  the  sea  air  to  prevent  plaster  from  performing 
its  usual  functions  as  an  absorbent,  the  effect  would  be 
perceived  to  a  far  greater  distance  inland.  If  any  fail- 
ures have  occurred  in  its  use  in  the  vicinity  of  the  sea, 
they  were  probably  owing  to  the  soil  rather  than  to  the 
atmosphere.  There  is  one  other  remark  in  this  connec- 
tion. When  plaster  has  been  applied  without  immediate 
effect,  we  s-hould  not  at  once  conclude  that  it  is  useless 
on  the  particular  soil  to  which  it  is  applied.  The  first 
season  may  be  dry,  and  ill-adapted  to  its  decomposition. 
In  such  cases  good  results  have  ordinarily  followed  the 
second  year. 

The  great  utility  of  bones  as  a  manure  arises  from 
the  large  amount  of  phosphates  which  they  contain. 
On  all  pastures  which  have  been  long  fed  the  phos- 
phate of  lime  is  exhausted.  It  is  constantly  taken  from 
the  earth  in  the  grass,  to  form  the  bone,  the  muscle,  and 
the  milk  of  animals.  Of  the  earthy  matter  in  bones, 
nearly  five-sixths  consist  of  phosphate  of  lime  and  mag- 
nesia. Nitrogen  is  also  abundant,  and,  of  course,  am- 
monia, for  nitrogen  is  an  element  of  ammonia.  A  few 
bushels  of  bone-dust  will  often  quite  restore  old,  "worn- 
out  "  pastures.  Indeed,  almost  every  part  of  which 


BONE-MEAL    AND    ASHES.  375 

bones  are  composed  goes  directly  to  the  nourishment 
of  vegetable  life.  The  ashes  of  all  grains  are  very  rich 
in  phosphate  of  lime.  This  shows  the  importance  of 
furnishing  this  element  for  their  use. 

A  mixture  of  crushed  bones  and  ashes,  or  leached 
ashes,  forms  a  valuable  top-dressing.  Nor  will  this  ap- 
plication, in  small  quantities,  be  thought  expensive,  if 
what  is  said  be  true,  that  the  animal  part  of  bones, 
which  amounts  to  about  one-third,  contains  eight  or  ten 
times  as  much  ammonia  as  the  manure  of  the  cow.  A 
small  quantity  of  bone-dust  will  answer  the  purpose,  in 
some  respects,  of  a  larger  quantity  of  manure  from  the 
stable.  We  can  but  hope  that  every  farmer  will  try 
the  experiment.  It  may  be  done  on  a  small  scale  at 
first,  though  in  the  vicinity  of  every  butcher's  estab- 
lishment bones  can  commonly  be  procured  in  any 
quantity. 

Thus  far  I  have  spoken  of  manures  which  belong 
more  peculiarly  on  the  surface,  as  a  top-dressing  for 
grass.  For,  though  they  are  sometimes  used,  especially 
plaster,  on  ploughed  land,  with  potatoes  and  other 
crops,  yet  their  influence  on  the  surface  is  thought  to 
be  far  more  effective.  Indeed,  the  benefit  of  lime, 
plaster,  and  charcoal,  would,  in  a  great  measure,  be  lost, 
were  they  to  be  buried  to  any  depth  in  the  earth.  But 
there  are  other  manures  which  are  often  used  as  top- 
dressings. 

One  of  the  best  practical  farmers  in  the  country  says: 
"  I  top-dress  almost  all  of  my  mowing  in  the  fall,  cut 
two  crops  on  all  of  them,  and  on  some  a  third.  I  make 
a  compost  of  earth  and  manure  ;  make  in  the  lot  where 
it  is  used,  by  ploughing  off  a  thin  turf  on  the  lower 
side  of  a  small  hill  or  knoll,  taking  the  turfs  to  the  hog- 
yard,  and  then  cart  from  the  stable  three,  five,  or  ten 
loads,  or  more,  as  I  have  the  manure.  Drop  the  manure 


376  OPINIONS    OF    FARMERS. 

upon  the  ground  that  the  turf  was  removed  from,  then 
plough  on  the  upper  side  of  the  hill,  and  shovel  two 
loads  of  earth  upon  each  load  of  manure,  beginning  in 
the  spring,  and  so  on  through  the  season.  As  the  manure 
of  the  barn  increases,  cart  to  the  meadow,  placing  it 
upon  the  upper  side  of  the  first  heap,  and  plough  and 
shovel  as  before.  From  one  hundred  loads  of  good 
stable  manure  it  makes  three  hundred  loads  of  good 
compost,  and  will  make  as  much  grass  as  so  many  loads 
of  stable  manure.  For  grass,  put  ten  cart-loads  per 
acre.  Spread  in  the  fall  upon  mowing,  this  compost 
makes  more  grass  than  green  manure,  carted  and 
spread  upon  mowing  in  the  spring.  In  almost  all  cases 
the  knoll  or  hill  carted  until  it  is  level  with  the  adjoin- 
ing ground  produces  more  crop  than  b^bre." 

Another  writes  me  as  follows:  "Top-dressing  for 
mowing  lands  is  very  beneficial,  but  too  expensive,  if 
barn-yard  manure  alone  is  used,  so  much  passes  off  by 
evaporation.  A  compost  of  one-half  or  two-thirds  turf, 
or  swamp  muck,  and  one-third  good  manure,  is  quite  as 
beneficial  to  the  land,  and  probably  better  or  more  en- 
during than  all  manure.  If  ashes  are  mixed  in  this  com- 
post, it  is  all  the  better.  But,  if  stable  manure  alone,  or 
in  compost,  is  to  be  applied,  it  should  be  in  autumn,  so 
that  the  frosts  of  winter  may  incorporate  it  with  the 
soil." 

Another  farmer,  of  great  experience  and  observation, 
says  :  "  I  top-dress  generally  late  in  the  fall,  but  should 
prefer  early  spring  dressing,  if  we  could  cart  on  the 
field  without  injury,  and  the  time  couH  be  spared  from 
other  business.  My  land  is  chiefly  of  a  cold,  tenacious 
soil,  and  a  compost  is  made  of  one-fourth  stable  manure 
and  three-fourths  light  loam.  For  warm  land,  peat  mud 
would  be  used  instead  of  the  .loam.  Twenty  common 
ox-cart  loads,  from  thirty-three  to  thirty-five  bushels 


COMPOSITION   OF   POTATO-TOPS.  377 

each,  to  the  acre,  is  as  small  a  dressing  as  can  be  judi- 
ciously applied.  Double  that  quantity  would  not  be  ex- 
cessive." "  With  respect  to  top-dressing  for  mowing 
lands,"  says  another  practical  farmer,  "  I  would  state 
that  for  several  years  we  have  been  in  the  habit  of  rais- 
ing from  one  to  three  acres  of  early  potatoes  for 
market.  We  have  usually  dug  them  early  in  August, 
and  before  the  tops  were  dead.  The  tops  are  taken 
directly  from  the  field,  and  spread  on  the  mowing  lands 
to  very  great  advantage.  We  think  the  tops  from  an 
acre  of  potatoes  sufficient  to  top-dress  an  acre  of  mow- 
ing land,  and  the  effect  is  equal  to  three  or  four  cords 
of  good  manure." 

The  practice  alluded  to  in  this  extract  is  worthy  of  a 
careful  trial  by  those  who  are  so  situated  as  to  adopt  it. 
It  is  known  that  the  tops  of  potatoes  contain  a  large 
percentage  of  the  organic  elements  of  plants. 

Fromberg  found  in  one  hundred  pounds  of  the  leaves, 
in  a  natural  state,  from  .82  to  .92  per  cent,  of  nitrogen, 
and  that  one  hundred  pounds  of  leaves  dried  contain  from 
5.12  to  5.76  per  cent,  of  nitrogen.  If  his  results  are 
correct, —  and  there  is  no  reason  to  distrust  them, — we 
add  to  the  land  fifty  pounds  of  inorganic  salts,  besides 
nearly  twenty  pounds  of  nitrogen,  among  the  organic 
constituents  of  every  ton  of  potato-tops.  This  would 
make  a  ton  of  them  equal  in  value  more  than  two 
tons  of  the  best  Ichaboe  guano. 

In  a  case  which  I  have  m  mind,  a  very  poor,  worn- 
out  grass  lot  was  top-dressed  with  fourteen  ordinary 
cart-loads  of  good  stable  manure  to  the  acre.  The 
quantity  of  grass  was  increased  four-fold.  Clover  and 
Timothy  came  in  as  luxuriantly  as  on  any  new-laid 
piece.  If  the  top-dressing  were  repeated  once  in  five 
or  six  years,  there  would  be  no  danger  of  exhaustion, 
though  there  would  be  an  advantage  in  loosening  the 
32* 


378  PRACTICAL    OPINIONS. 

earth  with  the  plough.  But  the  use  of  stable  manure 
should  be  confined  mostly  to  mowing  land.  On  closely- 
fed  pastures  it  would  be  injudicious,  from  its  exposure 
to  the  sun.  On  these,  ashes  or  plaster  would  be  better. 

One  experienced  farmer,  in  answer  to  the  circular  on 
a  preceding  page,  says  :  "  Peruvian  guano,  mixed  with 
loam,  is  unquestionably  the  best  manure  for  top-dress- 
ing that  can  be  found.  Ashes  are  very  good  for  lands 
that  are  liable  to  be  washed  by  the  fall  and  early  spring 
rains.  I  should  think  that  the  spring  would  be  the  best 
time  to  spread  it ;  but  on  lands  not  so  situated  the  fall 
would  be  more  proper.  In  the  latter  case,  the  manure 
would  be  entirely  mixed  in  around  the  roots  of  the 
grass,  and  all  the  strength  of  the  manure  would  remain 
in  the  ground." 

Another  experienced  and  intelligent  practical  farmer 
writes  me  :  "  I  top-dress  moist  mowing  lands  in  winter 
or  early  spring,  with  eight  or  ten  loads  of  fine  manure, 
or  with  about  three  hundred  pounds  of  guano,  mixing 
the  guano  with  twice  its  bulk  of  dry  sand,  moistened 
with  water,  containing  about  two  ounces  of  sulphuric 
acid  in  solution  to  the  gallon  of  water." 

No  farm  should  be  managed  without  a  compost  heap, 
since  it  may  be  so  made  as  to  form  an  extremely 
valuable  article  for  top-dressing.  A  quantity  of  meadow 
mud  should  be  dug  out  in  the  autumn  for  this  special 
purpose,  where  it  is  practicable.  Two  cords  of  peat 
mud,  added  to  one  cord  of  good  stable  manure,  will 
make,  in  the  estimation  of  many  practical  farmers,  a 
compost  of  three  cords  of  valuable  manure.  This  has 
been  tried  repeatedly,  and  is  constantly  done  by  those 
ambitious  to  excel  in  farming.  To  this  compost  heap 
should  be  added,  from  time  to  time,  all  the  animal  and 
vegetable  matter  adapted  to  ferment  and  enrich  the  soil. 
Woollen  rags,  the  remains  of  fish,  the  blood  and  flesh 


THE    COMPOST    HEAP.  379 

of  animals,  the  hair  of  animals,  all  these  make  an  ex- 
ceedingly rich  manure.  A  most  intelligent  gentleman, 
connected  with  a  wool  factory,  informs  me  that  a  cord 
of  matter  collected  at  the  establishment  is  worth  at 
least  five  or  six  cords  of  the  best  stable  manure,  for  a 
top-dressing.  This  we  cannot  doubt ;  for  here  are  the 
blood,  the  wool,  pieces  of  the  skin  of  the  animal,  a  little 
lime,  and  many  other  substances,  all  collected  together. 
A  fermentation  takes  place,  by  which  the  richest  gases 
are  formed.  Such  a  compost  heap,  with  an  addition  of 
loam  and  mud,  would  be  invaluable  for  a  top-dressing. 
But,  though  in  most  cases  all  these  substances  cannot 
be  procured,  many  of  them  can,  and  should  be  saved  by 
every  one  who  is  desirous  of  improving  his  land.  Those 
who  are  near  the  sea,  or  near  the  market,  can  procure 
an  abundance  of  fish  to  add  to  the  compost.  Nothing 
is  better  for  soils  than  this.  A  little  lime  added  to  the 
heap  causes  its  rapid  and  thorough  decomposition. 
Ashes  should  also  be  added.  When  additions  of 
manure  are  made,  they  should  be  covered  with  mud  or 
loam,  to  prevent  waste. 

We  need  not  enter  more  minutely  into  the  details  of 
forming  the  compost  heap.  It  is  sufficient  to  say,  in  a 
word,  that  everything  capable  of  fermentation  should 
be  added  to  it.  The  lower  layer  should  be  of  loam  or 
mud.  Nothing  is  more  common  among  farmers,  on  the 
death  of  a  horse  or  any  other  animal,  than  to  throw  the 
body  away.  It  is  estimated  by  some  that  the  body  of 
a  single  horse,  when  divided  and  mixed  with  peat  mud 
and  loam,  will  make  a  compost  worth  fifteen  or  twenty 
loads  of  the  best  and  richest  manure.  This  is,  perhaps, 
too  high  an  estimate  ;  but  animal  substances  ferment 
rapidly,  or  rather  they  may  be  said  to  putrefy  without 
fermenting,  so  quick  is  their  decomposition.  If  leaves, 
grasses,  moss,  straw,  and  other  substances  of  like 


380  USE    OF    LIQUID    MANURES. 

nature,  are  used,  lime  will  be  useful  in  causing  their 
rapid  decay.  When  these  are  well  fermented,  the  heap 
should  be  thrown  over,  and  if  made  long  and  narrow, 
so  as  to  expose  the  greater  surface  to  the  air,  it  will  be 
the  better. 

The  value  of  a  compost,  properly  made,  is  greater 
than  the  aggregate  value  of  the  several  ingredients  ap- 
plied separately,  no  matter  what  or  how  rich  they  may 
be.  Besides,  some  divisor  is  needed  for  concentrated 
or  other  powerful  manures,  by  means  of  which  they 
may  be  more  evenly  and  judiciously  applied.  Peat,  or 
dry  meadow  muck,  is  one  of  the  best  and  most  available 
of  these  divisors,  if  properly  prepared  by  exposure  to 
the  influence  of  air  and  frost.  No  good  farmer  would 
ever  use  lime  in  compost  with  barn-yard  manure  or 
animal  substances,  unless  peat  muck,  gypsum,  or  char- 
coal, were  largely  used  in  the  same  mixture. 

Animals  fed  on  rich  food  make  far  the  most  valuable 
manure.  This  will  serve,  in  part,  to  show  why  the 
manure  from  the  sty  is  so  fertilizing.  Swine  are  fed 
on  a  great  variety  of  rich  food.  The  actual  profit  of 
raising  them  arises  mainly  from  the  amount  of  sub- 
stances they  will  mix  together  and  make  into  good 
manure.  If  the  sty  be  supplied,  at  intervals,  with  mud, 
loam,  and  other  vegetable  matter,  the  farmer  will  not 
complain  of  the  cost  of  these  animals. 

Liquid  manures  are  highly  useful  to  grasses.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  apply  them,  also,  to  the  compost 
heap.  The  richness  of  manure  from  the  sty  is  due  to 
the  quantity  of  liquid  matter  it  contains.  Hence  the 
importance  of  adding  a  great  variety  of  vegetable  sub- 
stances, loam,  and  mud.  In  a  word,  it  may  be  said  that 
all  liquid  manures  contain  a  large  amount  of  nitrogen, 
which  is  one  principal  ingredient  of  ammonia,  to  which 
we  have  alluded.  The  importance  of  saving  the  liquid 


MODES    OF    IMPROVING     PASTURES.  381 

of  the  stable,  either  with  the  compost  or  to  be  applied 
by  itself,  may  be  seen,  also,  in  the  fact  that  the  exceed- 
ing richness  of  guano,  and  the  manure  of  all  fowls  and 
birds,  is  due  to  the  union  of  the  liquids  and  solids. 

After  fermentation  has  taken  place  in  animal  manures, 
in  the  compost  or  elsewhere,  they  may  be  spread  with- 
out much  loss  by  evaporation;  and  hence  it  matters  not 
whether  the  top-dressing  is  applied  in  the  autumn  or  in 
the  spring.  Plaster  is  better  spread  in  the  spring,  when 
the  moisture  of  the  earth  makes  it  immediately  availa- 
ble. Some  prefer  the  autumn  for  spreading  compost 
manures,  while  others  prefer  the  spring,  just  before  the 
thick  grass  surrounds  and  protects  them  from  the  sun 
and  wind.  The  soil,  in  autumn,  is  not  injured  by  the 
loaded  cart,  as  is  liable  to  be  the  case  in  spring.  Others, 
still,  apply  them  after  the  first  mowing,  and  before  the 
summer  rains.  The  new  crop  preserves  the  manure 
from  drying  up  and  wasting.  This,  however,  is  ordi- 
narily too  busy  a  season  to  attend  to  it  with  con- 
venience. 

We  have,  then,  these  several  methods  of  improving 
our  pasture  lands.  First,  To  allow  some  of  them  to 
run  to  wood,  or,  which  is  far  better,  to  plant  them  with 
forest  trees,  which  should  never  have  been  entirely  cut 
from  them.  This  applies  to  poor,  thin  soils,  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  homestead,  and  chiefly  in  the  older 
states,  where  the  pastures  have  become  exhausted  or 
run  out. 

Second,  To  plough  and  cultivate,  where  this  can  be 
done,  on  strong,  good  soils,  which  are  not  too  stubborn 
and  rocky.  This  applies  to  many  lands  which  have 
been  used  as  pastures  time  out  of  mind,  the  soils  of 
which  are  naturally  good,  but  have  run  out  from  neg- 
lect. Put  soil  into  a  good  state  of  culture,  and  rich 
and  nutritive  grasses  will  flourish  as  naturally  as 


382  SOWING    GRASS-SEED. 

weeds.  The  former  are  nearly  as  spontaneous  on 
good  soils  as  the  latter  are  on  poor  ones.  The  suc- 
cess will  depend  chiefly  on  good  culture,  if  this  mode 
is  adopted. 

Third,  To  scarify  the  surface  thoroughly  with  a 
sharp-tooth  harrow,  sowing  on  a  suitable  mixture  of 
grass-seeds  spoken  of  above,  and  then  harrow  and  brush 
over  again,  the  work  to  be  done  in  September  or  very 
early  in  spring,  if  the  surface  is  hard  enough  to  go  over 
with  cattle  without  too  much  poaching.  This  applies 
to  old  pastures  covered  with  moss,  where  the  sweet 
grasses  are  run  out,  but  which,  from  their  particular 
location,  may  not  be  desirable  for  woodland,  nor  pay 
for  a  more  complete  and  careful  improvement. 

Fourth,  To  mix  the  grass-seeds  as  evenly  as  possible 
with  a  finely-divided  compost,  and  use  it  as  a  top-dress- 
ing, first  harrowing  the  surface  to  loosen  it,  and,  after 
spreading  the  compost,  brushing  it  over  with  a  brush 
harrow  to  break  up  the  lumps.  This  will  cost  a  little 
more  than  the  preceding  method,  but  the  grass-seed 
will  start  sooner,  make  a  larger  and  finer  growth  the 
first  season,  and  give  greater  satisfaction.  This  applies 
to  very  much  the  same  class  of  lands  as  the  preceding. 
In  both  cases,  if  the  pasture  or  any  part  of  it  is  cov- 
ered with  bushes,  they  should  of  course  be  cut  or 
grubbed  up ;  if  it  is  wet  or  covered  with  stagnant 
waters,  they  should  of  course  be  drained  off,  so  as  at 
least  to  leave  a  dry  and  healthy  surface.  It  is  unneces- 
sary to  say  that  the  top-dressing  should  be  free  from 
weed-seed,  and  be  in  a  finely  divided  state.  This  method 
of  improvement  is  perfectly  practicable  on  thousands  of 
acres  which  are  now  in  a  state  both  discreditable  and 
unprofitable  to  their  owners. 

Fifth,  To  pasture  sheep,  turning  in  as  many  as  the 
pasture  will  carry, —  stocking,  in  other  words,  pretty 


IRRIGATING    GRASS    LANDS.  383 

closely,  for  a  few  years.  The  first  objection  that  many 
farmers  raise  to  this  method  is,  that  the  cost  of  fences 
is  great,  and  that  it  is  a  branch  of  husbandry  with  which 
they  are  not  acquainted.  This  may  be  so,  but  the  testi- 
mony of  those  who  have  tried  this  method  is  uniformly 
in  its  favor.  I  have  had  some  experience  and  consid- 
erable observation  in  sheep  husbandry,  and  my  atten- 
tion has  been  called  to  the  changes  wrought  by  sheep 
upon  rough  pastures  covered  with  bushes  and  briers 
in  part ;  and  it  appears  to  be  a  practicable  method  of 
improvement,  while  the  raising  of  sheep  and  lambs  for 
the  shambles  is  destined  to  be  a  profitable  branch  of 
farming. 

Another  practicable  means  of  improving  our  grass 
lands  is  by  irrigation.  Every  casual  observer,  even,  is 
familiar  with  the  fact  that  lands  are  fertilized  by  irriga- 
tion, and  especially  that  the  grass  by  running  streams 
shoots  earlier  in  spring,  and  makes  a  far  more  thrii'ty 
growth,  than  lands  on  the  same  kind  of  soil  which  have 
not  the  advantage  of  running  water.  The  introduction 
of  the  hydraulic  ram  among  the  implements  of  the  farm 
offers  facilities  for  irrigating  grass  lands  not  hitherto 
known;  and  it  will  unquestionably  become,  hereafter,  an 
important  means  of  guarding  against  our  severe  summer 
droughts,  and  of  increasing  vastly  the  production  of 
our  lands. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  state  with  any  detail  the 
different  methods  adopted  to  effect  the  objects  of  irri- 
gation, since  it  would  require  a  distinct  treatise  upon 
the  subject ;  and  it  is  sufficient  to  allude  to  the  simplest 
mode  employed  with  success,  and  the  advantages 
tfffered. 

Superficial  irrigation,  which  is,  perhaps,  the  oldest 
and  the  most  common  form  in  which  water  is  artifi- 
cially applied  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  growth 


o84  EFFECT    OF    IRRIGATION. 

of  grass,  was  undoubtedly  suggested  by  observing  the 
wonderful  effects  arising  from  the  overflow  of  rivers. 
Remarkable  examples  of  this  are  familiar  to  many,  as 
the  annual  or  periodical  overflowing  of  the  Nile,  where 
the  water,  without  being  left  to  stagnate  upon  the  sur- 
face, is  moving  gently  over  it,  depositing  whatever  allu- 
vial matter  it  may  hold  in  suspension.  The  extraordi- 
nary richness  of  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  and  on  a 
smaller  scale  of  the  valleys  of  the  Connecticut  and  other 
rivers,  is  mainly  due,  also,  to  this  kind  of  irrigation  ;  and 
this  is  imitated  in  our  attempts  to  conduct  water  over 
grass  land  by  a  system  of  shallow,  open  drains,  which 
take  the  water  from  its  natural  channel,  keeping  a  con- 
stant flow,  without  allowing  it  to  accumulate  in  any  part. 

The  process  of  surface  irrigation  is  not  so  simple  as 
many  would  suppose.  It  requires  considerable  skill  and 
practice,  and  many  failures  have  followed  experiments 
of  this  kind,  made  without  due  care  and  attention.  Sir 
John  Sinclair,  however,  in  speaking  of  this  operation, 
calls  it  one  of  the  "easiest,  cheapest,  and  most  certain 
modes  of  improving  poor  land,  in  particular  if  it  is  of  a 
dry  and  gravelly  nature.  Land,  when  once  improved 
by  irrigation,  is  put  into  a  state  of  perpetual  fertility, 
without  any  occasion  for  manure,  or  trouble  of  weeding. 
or  any  other  material  expense  ;  it  becomes  so  produc- 
tive as  to  yield  the  largest  bulk  of  hay,  besides  abun- 
dance of  the  very  best  support  for  ewes  and  lambs  in  the 
spring,  and  for  cows  and  other  cattle  in  the  autumn  of 
every  year.  In  favorable  situations,  it  produces  very 
early  grass  in  the  spring,  when  it  is  doubly  valuable  ; 
and  not  only  is  the  laud  thus  rendered  fertile  without  anv 
occasion  for  manure,  but  it  produces  food  for  animals 
which  is  converted  into  manure  to  be  used  on  other 
lands,  thus  augmenting  that  great  source  of  fertility." 

The    effect  and  value  of  irrigation   do  not  depend 


IMPORTANCE     OF    DRAINAGE.  385 

altogether  upon  the  artificial  supply  of  moisture  which 
it  furnishes  to  the  plant.  "  The  mechanical  action  of 
the  irrigatory  current  of  water,  in  exercising  the  plants, 
strengthening  their  organisms,  keeping  their  stems  and 
root  crowns  clear  of  obstruction,  promoting  the  equa- 
ble circulation  of  water  and  oxygen  around  them,  and 
causing  an  equable  distribution  of  the  soluble  materials 
of  their  food,  probably  plays  a  considerable  part  in  irri- 
gatory fertilization.  The  differences  of  effect,  from  the 
mere  circumstance  of  flowing  or  stagnation  of  the  water, 
are  prodigious  ;  for,  while  flowing  water  coaxes  up  the 
finest  indigenous  grasses  of  the  climate,  and  renders 
them  sweet,  and  wholesome,  and  nutritious,  and  luxu- 
riant, stagnant  water  starves,  deteriorates,  or  kills,  all 
the  good  grasses." 

The  effect  which  surface  irrigation  produces  on  the 
nutritive  qualities  of  the  grasses  may  be  seen  by 
reference  to  the  tables  of  analyses  found  in  a  pre- 
ceding chapter. 

But,  if  one  thing  more  than  another  may  be  said  to 
lie  at  the  foundation  of  all  real  improvement  of  grass 
lands,  or  lands  under  a  course  of  rotation,  it  is  a  proper 
system  of  drainage.  Especially  is  this  important  for 
low,  wet  lands,  since  it  not  only  frees  them  from  super- 
fluous water,  thus  making  them  more  susceptible  of 
tillage  in  early  spring,  but  actually  increases  their  tem- 
perature several  degrees, —  in  some  cases  as  much  as 
from  eight  to  ten,  and  rarely  less  than  from  two  to  four, 
— and  admits  the  air  to  circulate  more  freely  around  the 
roots  of  the  plants.  The  aquatic  grasses  require  large 
and  constant  supplies  of  moisture,  and  when  the  soil  is 
changed  by  drainage  the  more  valuable  species  of  grass 
may  be  introduced  and  cultivated  in  it. 

With  regard  to  the  management  of  salt  marshes, 
though  they  cannot  be  under-drained,  there  are  few 
33 


386  DITCHING     SALT    MARSHES. 

which  cannot  be  ditched,  and  greatly  improved,  by  the 
introduction  of  a  better  quality  of  grasses  than  those 
usually  found  there.  The  following  statement  of  one 
of  the  most  intelligent  practical  farmers  of  the  country 
will  show  what  may  be  done  in  this  direction  : 

The  marsh  was  one  which  never  had  been  ditched. 
"I  purchased  it,"  says  he,  "  in  1840,  which  year  it  pro- 
duced rather  less  than  half  a  ton  per  acre  of  poor, 
short,  wiry  hay,  worth  but  little  more  than  the  cost  of 
cutting  and  curing.  In  the  autumn  of  that  year,  I  hired 
faithful  laborers,  well  skilled  in  the  business,  to  cut 
ditches  over  the  whole  lot,  two  rods  apart,  eight  inches 
wide  and  three  feet  deep ;  the  sods  taken  out  were  laid 
in  piles,  to  prevent  the  tide  from  washing  them  away. 
The  two  following  winters,  they  were  taken  upon  a 
sled  to  the  cattle-yard,  where  they  remained  until  the 
roots  of  grass  contained  in  them  were  decayed,  so  as 
to  break  in  pieces  readily.  For  manure,  and  as  an 
absorbent,  they  are  as  valuable  as  the  best  of  meadow 
muck  or  peat.  I  paid  for  ditching  the  entire  lot  ninety 
dollars  ;  more  than  one  hundred  cords  of  sods  were 
dug  out  and  carted  away,  which  I  consider  worth  as 
much  to  me  as  the  sum  paid  for  ditching.  They  were 
placed  in  the  barn-yard,  in  a  compact  form,  to  insure 
a  proper  degree  of  moisture  and  cause  a  speedy 
decomposition,  and  afterwards  mixed  with  animal 
manures. 

"  Three  years  after  ditching,  the  produce  was  double, 
—  full  one  ton  per  acre  was  cut,  of  an  improved  qual- 
ity,—  since  which  it  has  annually  increased.  This  year 
the  produce,  as  estimated  by  good  judges,  was  two  tons 
per  acre,  including  about  five  tons  of  second  crop,  cut 
from  the  best  part  of  the  marsh.  As  an  evidence  of 
the  quantity  cut  this  year,  I  would  state  that  the  prod- 
uce has  been  sold  for  three  hundred  dollars  in  cash, 


WELL    BEGUN,   HALF    WELL    DONE.  387 

after  the  owner  had  used  nearly  one  ton  for  feed  for 
his  cows,  the  purchaser  agreeing  to  take  it  at  the  barn 
where  it  is  now  stored. 

"I  consider  salt  hay,  when  cut  from  marshes  that 
have  been  ditched,  where  the  grass  is  thick  and  the  yield 
large,  to  be  worth  as  much  as  the  average  of  upland 
hay  ;  that  cows  thrive  as  well,  and  give  as  much  milk, 
as  when  fed  with  Timothy  grass  and  clover  hay.  It  is 
my  belief  that  all  marshes  can  be  made  more  produc- 
tive by  thorough  draining,  at  a  very  small  expense.  I 
intend,  next  autumn,  to  cut  ditches  upon  my  own 
marsh  between  those  heretofore  made.  My  opinion 
is  unchanged,  that  the  sods  are  worth  as  much  as  the 
expense  of  ditching,  when  within  one  mile  of  the  farm 
where  they  are  to  be  used." 

This  subject  ought  to  receive  the  careful  attention 
of  the  enterprising  farmer.  Even  a  farmer  of  very 
limited  means  may  do  something  each  year  towards 
improving  his  pasture  lands.  He  may  lessen  the  area 
of  the  bushes;  he  may  plough  up  a  small  piece,  at  least, 
and  seed  down  at  once  with  grass-seed  and  winter  rye, 
either  in  the  spring  or  in  the  fall,  and  in  either  case  his 
stock  will  fare  enough  better  to  pay  for  it ;  and  the 
next  year  he  may  take  another  piece  in  the  same  pas- 
ture, till  the  whole  is  finished,  when  it  will  carry  more 
stock,  and  more  stock  will  give  him  more  manure,  and 
more  manure  will  increase  the  fertility  of  other  lands, 
and  increased  fertility  will  add  to  his  means  of  further 
improvement.  The  difficulty  with  most  small  farmers 
is  to  begin.  Well  begun  is  half  well  done ;  for,  the 
moment  any  real  improvement  is  begun  in  earnest, 
the  interest  is  excited,  the  mental  activity  is  in- 
creased, the  desire  for  improvement  partakes  the 
nature  of  a  passion  ;  and  hence,  though  the  begin- 


388  THE    CONCLUSION. 

ning  may  be  small,  the  ending  may  be  the  renovation 
of  the  owner  as  well  as  the  land. 


CONCLUSION. 

In  conclusion,  I  have  another  suggestion  to  make, 
as  to  the  propriety  of  encouraging  the  collection  of 
grasses  for  exhibition  at  the  anniversary  festivals  of 
our  agricultural  societies.  It  would  be  an  easy  thing, 
I  think,  to  engage  many  in  this  fascinating  pursuit. 
Some,  undoubtedly,  would  be  interested  by  the  simple 
suggestion,  but  the  offer  of  small  premiums  for  the 
largest  and  best-arranged  collection  would  induce 
others  to  attempt  it  who  now  want  something  to  stim- 
ulate them  to  the  work.  The  premium,  however  small, 
might  afford  the  necessary  stimulus ;  and,  if  an  interest 
were  once  excited,  the  subject  would  be  still  further 
pursued,  till  many  others  were  interested,  while  the 
collections,  if  properly  named,  would  do  much  to  dis- 
seminate a  higher  knowledge  of  the  exhaustless  riches 
of  this  class  of  plants. 

"  The  royal  rose,  the  tulip's  glow, 

The  jasmine's  gold,  are  fair  to  see  ; 
But  while  the  graceful  grasses  grow, 
0,  gather  them  for  me  ! 

"  The  pansy's  gold  and  purple  wing, 

The  snow-drop's  smile,  may  light  the  lea  5 
But  while  the  fragrant  grasses  spring, 
My  wreath  of  them  shall  be  !  " 


INDEX  OF  SYSTEMATIC   NAMES. 


Page  .  Page 

AGROSTIS  gtolonifera, 17, 43     Calamagrostis  Pickeringii, 49 

"        perennaus, 39  "  brevipilis, 49 

«        vulgaris, 12, 35, 40  «  longitblia, 49 

»        alba, 42  «  arenaria, 49 

"        canina, 39,  42    Cenchrus  tribuloides, 147 

"        scabra, 39     Cinua  arundinacea, 45 

«        dispar, 44        "     pendula, 46 

"        elata, 38     Ctenium  Americanum, 61 

Anthoxanthum  odoratum, 132,  222     Cynosurus  cristatus, 137,  222 

Aira  flexuosa, 120     Cynodon  dactylon, 63,  254 

"    caspitosa, 121, 206     Cyperacea, 200 

"     aquatica, 123     Dactyloctenium  Egyptiacum, 63 

"    atropurpurea, 123  Daetylis  glouierata,  ...  12,  43,  66,  111,  206 

Alopecurus  pratensis, 30,  222     Danthonia  spicata, 123 

"         agrestis, 31     Diouea  muscipula, 27 

"         geniculatus, 33,  207     Diarrhena  Americana, 66 

"         aristulatus, 33     Dupotitia  cooleyi, 66 

Ammophila  arundinacea, 49,  207     Eatonia  Pennsylvania, 70 

Andropogou  furcatus, 148  .  Eleusine  Indica, 64 

"  scoparius, 149  ;  Elymus,  arenarius, 119 

"  argenteus, 149          "        Virgiuicus, 118 

"  Virginicus, 149          "        Canadensis, 119 

Avena  pratensis, 125,  206          "        striatus, 119 

"     flavescens, 126,  222          "        mollis 119 

"     striata, 126          "        Hystrix 120 

"     pnecox, 127     Eragrostis  reptans 92 

u     saliva, 127,171          "  poajoides, 93 

Aristida  dichotoma, 59          "  mesjastachya, 93 

"          gracilU 59  «  pilosa, 93 

"         ramosissiraa, 59          "          capillarig, 94 

"         tuberculosa, 60          "          pectinacea, 94 

"         Btricta, 59          "          Frankii, 94 

"         purpurascens, 59          "          tenuis, 94 

"         olijrantha, 60     Erianthus  alopecuroides, 148 

Arrhenatherum  avenaceum, ....  127, 222  |        "          brevibarbis, 148 

Aruudinaria  macrosperma, 110     Festuca  tenella, 96 

Bouteloua  oligostachya,  ....  62,  249,  258          "        ovina 97,  206 

"         hirsuta, 62          "        pratensis, 99 

"         curtipendula, 62          "        elatior, 100, 206 

Brachyelytrura  aristatum, 48          "        duriuscula, 97,  206,  222 

Briza  media, 96,  222          "        rubra, 97 

"     maxima. 96          "        loliacea, 101 

Brizopyrum  spicatum, 80          "        nutans, 101 

Bromus  seoalinus, 102, 103, 105    Glyceria  Canadensis, 71 

racemosus,     102,  106          "  •     obtusa, 71 

moilis, 102, 197,  222          "        dlstans, 79 

kalmii, 107          "        elongata, 73 

sterilis 108          "        nervata, 73 

ciliatus 107          "        pallida, 74 

pratensis, 108          "        acutiflora, 77 

Calamagrostis  Canadensis, 48          "        aquatica, 75,  207 

"  coarctata, 48          "        fluitans, 75, 207 

«  inexpansa, 49          "        maritiina, 77,  199,  207 

33*  (389) 


390 


INDEX    OF    SYSTEMATIC    NAMES. 


Qymnopogon  brevifolius,    .......    63  I 

"  racemosus,     ........    62 

Hedysarum  onobrychis,  ........  194 

Hierochloa  borealis,  ..........  1311 

"  alpina,    ..........  132 

Holcus  lanatus,     .........  129,  222 

"     mollis  .............  131 

Hordeumjubatum,  ..........  117 

"         distichum,   .......  118,  164 

"         vulirare,   ......  118,  16J,  164 

"         pusillum,  ..........  118 

Juncaceae  ...............  198 

Juncus  bulbosus  ........  77,  198,  207 

Kueleria  cristota,  ...........    70 

"        truiicala,    ..........    70; 

Leersia  oryznides,   ........   26,  207 

"       Vinrinica  ...........    26: 

"       lenticularis,     .........    27 

Leptochloa  mucrouata,  ........    64 

u          fascicularis,  ........    64 

I«pturus  paniculalus,  .........  110 

Loliuin  p-renue,  .........  110,222 

"     Italicum,  ...........  112 

"     temuleitum,     .......  112,115 

"     mulliflorum,  ..........  115 

Medicago  saliva,  .........  189,  223 

Melica  mutica,  ............    71 

llilium  elTusum  ............  137 

MuUlenbergia  diffusa,     ........    47 

"  glomerata,   .......    46 

"  Mexicnna,    .......    46 

"  sylvatica,     .......    47 

«  8obr,lifera,    .......    46 

"  Willdenovu,    ......    47 

"  capillaris,     .......    47 

Oryzipsis  melanocarpa,  ........    55 

"        agperifolia,  .........    56 

"        Canadensig,    ........    56 

Oriza  saliva,  ...........    27,156 

Panicura  fllifi)rme,  ..........  140 

"       Rlahrum,   ..........  140 

san-uinale,  .........  140 

a«r  »sloi<lL-8,  .........  141 

prolifL-rura,   .........  141 

capillare,  ..........  141 

anceps  ............  140 

amarum  ...........  142 

aulumnale  ..........  141 

paucifli>rum,     ........  143 

dicholomum,    ........  144 

depauperalum,    .......  144 

verrucrtaum,  .........  144 


Pag» 
Phleum  alpinum,  ...........    36 

Phra^'milea  cunununis,     .    .    .     109,  207.  258 
Poa  serolina,  ...........      73,  81 

pratensis,  .  .    .   .   67,  80,  85,  88,  222,  258 

compressa,     ...........    91 

annua,     ........  13,  14,  SO.  222 

trivialis,  ...........   60.  -j-'2 

nemoralia,  ............    S4 

laxa,    ..............    80 

brevifolia,   ............    81 

flexuosa,     ............    81 

abodes,  .............    81 

debilis,    .............    81 


sylv 


81 


Polypn^on  monspelinisis,  .......    45 

Bacchamm   oflicinaiuiu,  ........  152 

S.csde  cereale,  ..........  118,168 

8*tHria  vtrticillata,  ..........  146 

ptauca,  ............  146 

viiidis,  ............  146 

Italics,  ............  146 


Sor 


Spa 


mm  succharatum,    ........  150 

riorum,  ...........  150 

nutans,  ...........  149 

vulgare,  ........  150,254 

ina  cynos  uroides, 


'ulj  stachya,     ......    60,  207 

glabra,   ...........    61 

aterniflora,    .........    61 

juncea,  .........   61,  207 

stricta,    .........   61,207 

Spo    bolus   strotinus,  .........    38 

junceus  ..........    37 

Ltterolepis,    ........    37 

cryptandrus,  ........    38 

com  pressus,  ........    38 

Stipa   avenacea,    ...........    58 

Stipa   ptnnata,  ............    57 

"      Riclmnlsonii,  ..........    57 

tpiirtta 


vir/alum,  ..........  141 

lalif.lium,  ..........  142 

clandeslinum,  ........  142 

xanlhophysum,    .......  142 

crus-fralli,  ..........  144 

germanicum,    ........  145 

viscidum,  ..........  142 

miliaceum,    .........  Ml 

Pasp  lum  fluilans  ...........  139  I 

dipitaria,    .........  140 

teve  ............  139 

dislichum,  .........  139  ! 

setaceum,   .........  139  ! 

Phalaris  arundinacea,     .    .    .     105,134,206 
"      Canariensis,  .........  137 

Phleum  pralense,     .....  12,17,34,222, 


Tricuspis  purpurea  ..........    65 

"        sesleroides,  .........    65 

"  cornuta  ...........  65 

Trifolium  pralenw;,  ........  185.  223 

a        repens,  .........  18*.  -J-j:} 

«         me<liuDi  .........  18H.  223 

"  hyl-rhlum,  .........  189 

Triglochin  pHllustre  ..........  197 

"          marilinium,    ........  197 

"  elntum,  ..........  197 

Trteetum  molle,    ...........  124 

"       palluslre,  ..........  125 

"  pube«;en»,  .......  126.  222 

Trilicum  repens,  .........  115,116 

"         cnninuro,  ..........  117 

"         vulpare  .........  117,158 

"  comix)situm,  ........  117 

Tripsacum   dactyloides,  ........  147 

Uniola  jmnieulala,    ..........  108 

"       Jalifolia,     ...........  109 

"  gracilis,  ...........  10» 

Vilfa  asi>era  ..............    37 

"  vagina-flora,  ..........  37 

Xyris  bulbosa,  ............  199 

"  caroliniana,  ..........  199 

Z»-a  mays,  ...........     154,  174 

Ziitania  aqualica,  .........   28,  207 

"  miliacea,  ...........  29 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


Aftermath,  growth  and  use  of  the 31,  36,  87,  91,  351,  353,  354 

Agricultural  Museum,  collections  for  the, 10 

Agricultural  Societies  should  offer  prizes  for  collections, 388 

Albuminous  Principles,      222,  224,  226,  228,  234 

Alfalfa,  culture  of, 189, 190, 192 

Allen's  Mower,  illustration  of, 314 

Alpine  Brown  Bent,  natural  history  of, 33 

Alpine  Reed  Bent,  description, 49 

Alsyke  Clover,  characteristics  of, > 189 

Ammonia,  importance  of, 371,  372,  374 

Analysis  of  the  Grasses, 23,  218,  224,  226,  228,  231 

"         "    Weeds, 234 

Annual  Spear  Gra<s 13,  14,  80 

Annual  Beard  Grass,  description, 45 

Arrow  Grasses,  list  of  the, 197 

Ash  of  the  Grasses,  analysis  of, 231,  233 

Ashes,  use  of  as  manure, 367,  369 

Atmosphere,  elements  of  the, 205,  210 

Awned  Brachyelytrum,  description  of, 48 

Awnless  Muhleubergia,  natural  history  of, 46 

Barley,  composition  of, 163,167.168 

"       description  and  culture  of, 163, 165, 167 

"       climatic  range  of, 261,  263 

Barley  Grass,  description  of, 118 

Barn  Grass,  description  of, 144 

Beach  Grass,  natural  history  of, 49 

"          "      culture  of. 50,  52,  55,  290 

Beard  Grasses,  natural  history  of  the, 149 

Bearded  Darnel,  seeds  of  poisonous, 115 

Bearded  WheatGrass,  description, 117 

Benefit  of  Mr.  Dobbs, 323     ( 

Bengal  Grass,  description  of, 146 

Bermuda  Grass,  natural  history  of, 63,  254,  258 

Black  Grass,  description  and  value  of, 198 

Black  Mountain  Rice,  natural  history  of, 55 

Black  Oat  Grass,  description  of, 58 

Blossoming,  period  of, 278,  290 

Blue  Grass,  natural  history  of, 91 

Blue  Joint  Grass,  description  of, 48 

Bones,  value  of  as  manure,      374,  375 

^Burden's  Grass 40 

Bottle  Brush  Grass,  description 120 

Bottle  Grass,  natural  history  of, 146 

Branching  Spear  Grass, 94 

Bristly  Foxtail,  description  of, 146 

Bristly  Muskit,  natural  history  of, 62 

Broom  Corn,  description  of, 150 

(391) 


392  GENERAL    INDEX. 

Brown  Bent,  natural  history  of, 39 

Buffalo  Grass  on  the  prairies, 249,  252,  258 

Bur  Grass,  description  of, 147 

California,  grasses  of, 196,  251,  255 

Canadian  Lyme  Grass,  description  of, 119 

"         Kice,  natural  history  of, 56 

Cane,  natural  history  of  the, 110 

Catch-Fly  Grass,  description  of, 27 

Cerealia,  description  of  the, 155,  158,  163,  168,  171 

"         importance  of  the, 155 

"        climatic  range  of  the, 259,  261,  263 

Charcoal,  use  of  as  a  manure 373 

Cheap  Implements,  economy  of, 310 

Chess,  natural  history  of, 102 

"      cultivation  as  \V il lard's  Bromus 104,105,106 

Chinese  Sugar-Cane,  natural  history  of, 150,  151,  152,  338 

Circular  Letter  on  the  Grasses, 243-245 

Climate,  effect  of  on  vegetation,       184,  239,  241,  255,  257,  260,  262 

"         range  of  for  grasses, 246,  254,  255,  260 

"  "      "    "    grains, 259,  261,  262 

Close-flowered  Small  Reed,  description  of, 49 

Clover,  comparative  value  of, 185,  226,  228,  230,  335 

"       mode  of  curing 335,  337 

"       effect  of  on  the  soil 210, 285 

"        Seed,  time  of  sowing, 187,  296,  297 

Clustered  Spear  Grass,  description, 79 

Clustering  Muhlenbergia,  natural  history  of, 46 

"          Slender  Grass,  description, 64 

Common  Canary  Grass,  culture  of, 135 

"        Manna  Grass,  description  of, 75 

"         Millet 142, 143 

"        Reed  Grass,  natural  history  of, 109,  207,  258 

"        Spear  Grass 87,  89,  91 

Composition  of  the  Grasses, 224,  227,  229 

Compost,  modes  of  forming 378,  379,  382 

"          value  of  greater  than  its  separate  parts, 380 

Corn  Fodder,  curing  of, 338,  339 

Couch  Grass,  natural  history  of, 115,  116 

Cows,  experiments  in  feeding, 105,  106 

Cow  Grass,  description  of, 189 

Creeping  Meadow  Grass,  description  of, 92 

"         Soft  Grass,  natural  history  of, 130,131 

Crested  Dog's-tail,  description  of, 137,  138,  224,  227 

Crop  Grass,  description  of, 64 

Crowded  CalamagrostSs,  description  of, 48 

Cut  Grass,  natural  history  of, 26 

Cutting  Grass  in  the  blossom, 136,  299,  301,  303,  307 

«          "      modes  of, 307,308,310,313,320 

Darnel,  or  Perennial  Rye  Grass, 110,  111 

Division  Fences  on  the  Farm, 316,  318 

Downy  Oat  Grass, 125 

"       Triple  Awn,  description  of, 59 

"       Persoon,  natural  history  of, 124 

Drainage,  importance  of, 385 

Drought,  effect  of  on  vegetation, 294,  2:>C 

Dupontia  Grass,  description  of, 66 

Early  Wild  Oat  Grass,  description  of, 127 


GENERAL    INDEX.  393 


Egyptian  Grass,  description  of, 63 

Elements  of  respiration, 223 

English  Bent,  natural  history  of, 42 

Essential  parts  of  the  plant, 12,  16 

Evaporation  from  the  soil, 240,  241,  381 

Fall  Feeding,  practice  of, 351,  353,  354 

"    Seeding, 294,296,298 

False  Redtop,  natural  history  of, 81 

"     Rice,  description  of, 26 

Feather  Grass,  natural  history  of, 67 

Fertilization,  process  of, 15 

Field  Barley  Grass, 118 

Finetop, 40 

Finger  Grass,  description  of, 140 

Finder-shaped  Paspalum,  where  found, 140 

Finger-spiked  Wood  Grass,  description  of, 148 

Fiorin,  natural  history  of, 43 

Flesh-forming  elements, 136,  220,  221,  225,  228,  230 

Floating  Meadow  Grass,  description  of, 75 

"         Foxtail,  natural  history  of, 33 

"         Paspalum,  where  found, 139 

Flour  of  Wheat,  composition  of, 162, 163 

Flowers  of  the  Grasses 12,  13,  14,  16,  22,  25 

Fly-away  Grass,  description  of, 39 

Food  of  Animals,  nutritive  value  of, 219,  221,  225,  235 

Forest  Trees,  culture  of, 360,  361 

Fowl  Meadow  Grass,  description  of, 81 

Fresh  Water  Cord  Grass,  where  found, 60 

Fringed  Brome  Grass,  description  of, 107 

Gama  Grass,  description  of, 147 

Genus  and  Species,  distinction  between, 17 

Goose  Grass,  description  of, 77,  79 

Grains,  climatic  range  of, 259,  296 

"        and  Grasses  sown  together, 294,  296 

Gratuineffi,  the  order, 11,  16,  25 

Gramma  Grasses,  history  and  distribution  of, 62,  249,  254,  258 

Grasses,  adapted  to  green  manuring, 209,211,213 

"       analysis  of  the, 23,  136,  218,  224,  226,  228,  331 

"       changes  in  the  growth  of, 302,303,329 

"       classification  of, 11,  183,  205,  207,  216 

"       climatic  range  of, 246,  254,  255 

"       collection  of, ]0,  388 

"       cultivation  of  the, 183,  184,  186,  268 

"       description  of  the, 11,  26,  154 

"       effect  of  soil  and  seasons  on, 239,  241,  247 

"       flowers  of  the, 12,  13,  14,  16,  22,  25 

"       green  manuring,      56,  209,  211,  214 

"       growth  of  in  sun  and  shade,      255,  256 

"       height  of  cutting, 326,  327 

"       importance  of  the, 9,  205 

"       list  of  the  natural, 17,  18,  20,  22,  222 

«       mixtures  of  the,       268,  278 

"       nutritive  value  of  the, 217 

"       of  the  Southern  States, 253,  254,  255 

"       studying  the, 16,  17,  22,  388 

"       the  artificial, 183,  223 

«       the  litter, 215 


394:  GENERAL    INDEX. 

Grasses,  the  rush-like, 197,198 

time  of  sowing  the, 294,296,298 

"  "     "    cutting  the, 299,  301,  300,  333 

Grass  Lands,  drainage  of, 385,  386 

"        treatment  of, 351,  303,  375,  377,  383 

"        top-diessing  of, 328,  364,  365,  375,  381 

Seed,  depth  of  covering, 271,273 

"       germination  of, 205,  206,  270,  271 

"       loss  of  from  too  deep  covering 271,  273 

"       mode  of  buying, 270 

"       selection  of, 264,  265,  207 

"       time  of  sowing, 294,  21JO,  298 

"       weight  of, 270,271,273 

Green  Manuring,  importance  of,      50,  209,  211,  214 

«  modes  of, 210,  211,  214 

Green  Meadow  Grass, 87,  83 

Growth,  peculiarities  of, 206,  239,  240,  329 

Guano  as  a  top-dressing, 350,378 

Guinea  Grass,  description  of, 150,  254,  258 

Hair-panicled  Meadow  Grass, 94 

Hair  Grass, 39,  47 

Hairy  Muskit,  description  of, 62 

"      Slender  Paspalum, 139 

Hay,  nutritive  value  of, 329 

"      curing  of, 315,  329,  332,  334 

"      Caps,  use  of, 346,347,  349 

"        "       permanent, 349,  350 

Hard  Fescue  Grass,  description  of, 97 

Heat-forming  elements, 223,319,321 

Holy  Grass,  description  of, 131 

Horned  Sand  Grass,  description  of, 05 

Horse-rake,  use  of  the, 341,342   344,346 

Humidity,  effect  of, 242,  255,  257 

Hungarian  Grass,  description  of, 145 

Imitation  of  nature 269,  293 

Indian  Corn,  climatic  range  of, 259,  261 

"  "  composition  of, 177 

"  "  culture  of, 178,  180,  181,  259,  338,  339 

"  "  importance  of, 176 

«  "  natural  history  of, 154,  174,  175,  176 

"  "  stooking  and  curing  of, 339,  340 

"  "  varieties  of, 178 

"  Grass,  description  of, 149 

"  Millet,  natural  history  of, 150 

"  Rice,  description  of,  27,  28 

Irrigation,  effect  of, 383,  385 

"  process  of, 384 

Italian  Rye  Grass,  description  of, 112 

"  "  "  comparative  value  of, 113 

Joint  Grass,  description  of, 139 

June  Grass,  natural  history  of, 87,88 

"        "       qualities  of, 89,  90,  91 

Jungle  Grasses,  list  of, 206 

Kentucky  Blue  Grass,  description  of, 87, 88 

"  "         "      qualities  of, 89, 91 


GENERAL    INDEX.  395 

Large-panicled  Vilfa,  description  of, 38 

Late  l)rop  Seed,  natural  history  of, 38 

Lawn  Grasses,  mixture  of, 282,  283,  284 

Lime  in  the  Grasses, 232 

"     application  of, 234,  365,  367 

Liquid  Manures,  value  of, 380 

Long-awned  Poverty  Grass,  natural  history  of, 60 

Long-panicled  Manna  Grass,  description  of, ; 73 

Lucerne,  culture  of, 189,  190,  192 

"         description  of, 

Lyme  Grass,  natural  history  of, 118 

Machine  and  hand  labor, 310,  312,  313,  315 

Many-flowered  Darnel,  description  of, 115 

Manny's  Mower,  illustrated, 317 

Manures  for  Grass  Lands, 359,  362,  365,  367,  374 

Marsh  Oat  Grass,  description  of,      125 

Meadow  Brome  Grass,  description  of, 108 

Fescue     "  "  "      99 

"        Foxtail    "  "  «       30 

"  "          "        value  of,  for  pastures, 31 

"        Oat  Grass,  description  of, 125 

"        Soft    "  "  " 129,  130 

"         Spear  Grass,     "  " 72, 73 

or  Swale  Hay, 199,200 

Melic  Grass,  description  of, 71 

Millet,  description  and  culture  of, 142,  143 

Millet  Grass,  natural  history  of, 137 

Mixtures  of  Grass  Seed, 263,  266,  273,  277,  278,  291,  293 

"        "    soils,  importance  of, 263,364 

Moisture  and  Heat,  effect  of, 239,  241,  264 

Mountain  Cat's-tail,  description  of, 36 

Mowing,  height  of, 326,  327,  328 

Mowing-machines,  use  of, 308,  310,  312,  313,  315,  318 

"  "         management  of, 320, 321 

Muck-beds  in  low  grounds, 204,  205 

Muskit  or  Grauiuia  Grasses, 02,  251,  258 

Naked  Beard  Grass,  description  of, 62 

Nimble  Will,  description  of, 47 

Nitrogen,  importance  of  in  food, 219,  235 

Nitrogenous  compounds, 136,  219,  220,  235 

Nodding  Fescue  Grass,  description  of, 101 

Nutritive  equivalents,  tables  of, 235,  236 

Oats,  natural  history  and  culture  of, 171 

"     quantity  necessary  to  sow, 173 

«     varieties  of, 171 

Obtuse  Spear  Grass,  description  of, 71 

Orchard  Grass,  natural  history  of, 12,  66,  68,  69 

Over-curing  of  grasses  injurious, 330 

Over-seeding  with  few  species, 273,  275,  276,  292 

Pale  Manna  Grass,  description  of, 74 

Pasture  Grasses, 277,  278,  280 

Pastures,  turf  of  old 274,  278 

"        renovation  of, 355,  357,  359,  362,  381,  383 

"       top-dressings  for 328,  362,  367,  375 

Perennial  Rye  Grass,  description  of, 110 

Penusylvanian  Eatonia,  description  of, 70 


396  GENERAL    INDEX. 

Phosphates  taken  from  the  soil, 231 

Plants,  number  of  in  the  turf, 274,  276,  278 

Plaster  of  Paris,  use  of, 370,  372,  374 

Porcupine  Grass,  natural  history  of, 58 

Potato-tops,  composition  of,      377 

Poverty  Grass,  description  of, 59 

Prairie  Triple  Awn,  description  of, 60 

Prolific  Kice,  description  of, 29 

Pungent  Meadow  Grass, 93 

Purple  Alpine  Hair  Grass, 123 

"      Wood  Grass, 149 

"      Wild  Oat  Grass 126 

Quaking  Grass,  description  of, 96 

Rains,  distribution  of, 242 

Rattlesnake  Grass,  natural  history  of, 71 

Reaper,  history  and  use  of  the, 322,324,325 

Redtop,  description  of, 40,  331 

Red  Clover,  natural  history  of, 185,  186,  282 

"         "       curing  of, 335,  337 

Reed  Canary  Grass, 105,  106,  133,  134,  136 

"  "  "      nutritive  value  of, 136 

Red  Fescue  Grass,  natural  history  of, 97 

Rhode  Island  Bent,  description  of, 40 

Rice,  history  and  culture  of, 27,  156,  158 

Richardson's  Feather  Grass, 57 

Rough-leaved  Vilfa,  description  of, 37 

"       Marsh  Grass,  natural  history  of, 61 

"       stalked  Meadow  Grass,  description  of, 85 

Rush-like  Grasses,  list  of, 239,  241,  260 

"     Salt  Grass,  description  of, 61 

Salt  Marshes,  ditching  of, 386,  387 

"     Marsh  Grass,  natural  history  of, 61 

"     Reed         "      description  of, 60 

Sainfoin,  history  and  culture  of, 194,  195 

Sand  Grass,  description  of, 65 

Scythe,  use  of  the, 307,  320 

Sea  Spear  Grass,  description  of, 77,79 

Seasons,  influence  of, 239,  241,  2CO 

Sedges,  description  and  list  of, 199,  200,  203,  204 

Seed,  selection  of, 17'J,  203 

"      quantity  to  be  sown, 173,  278,  286 

"      vitality  of, 263,  2C6 

Seneca  Grass,  description  of, 131 

Shade,  effects  on  the  quality  of  grass, 239,  241,  204 

Sheep's  Fescue  Grass,  natural  history  of, 97 

Sheep,  effect  of  on  the  pasture 382,  383 

Short-leaved  Beard  Grass, 63 

"         "       Spear      "      81 

"     stalked  Meadow  Grass 95 

Silicates  taken  from  the  soil 231,  232 

Slender-tail  Grass,  natural  history  of, 110 

Spike  Grass,  description  of, 109 

Meadow    "          "  " 93 

Three-awned  Grass,  description  of, 59 

Foxtail,  natural  history  of, 31 

Crab  Grass,  description  of, 140 

Spiked  Fescue,        «       "      101 


GENERAL    INDEX.  397 


Slender  Hairy  Lyme  Grass,  natural  history  of, 119 

Small  Fescue,  description  of, 96 

Smooth  Marsh  Grass,  "     " 61 

"        Erect  Paspalum,  description  of, 139 

"        Crab  Grass,  natural  history  of,       140 

Snow,  effect  of  on  grasses, 257,  263 

Soft  Brorne  Grass,  natural  history  of, 107 

"     Lyme       "       description  of, 119 

Soil,  effect  on  the  grasses,      12 

Soils,  mixture  of, 263,  264 

Sorgho  Sucre,  description  and  culture, 150,  152,  338 

Southern  Eragrostis,  natural  history  of, 95 

Specimens  of  Grasses,  collection  of, 10,  388 

Spring  Wheat,  varieties  of, 160,  162 

Squirrel-tail  Grass,  description  of, 117 

Spike  Grass,  natural  history  of, 80,  108 

Star  Grasses,  list  of  the, 199 

Starch,  transformation  into  woody  fibre, 302,  329,  330 

Striped  Grass 133,  134,  135,  136 

Sterile  Brome  Grass,  description  of, 108 

Strong-scented  Villa,  natural  history  of, 37 

"         "         Meadow  Grass, 93 

Stocking  of  corn,  practice  of, 339,  340 

Swale  Grass, 199,  204 

Sweet-scented  Vernal  Grass, 132,  133,  134 

Swale  Hay,  value  of, 199,  204,  233 

Sylvan  Muhlenbergia,  history  of, 47 

"      Spear  Grass,  description  of, 81 

Tall  Fescue  Grass,  description  of, 100 

"     Oat  "       natural  history  of, 127 

"     Redtop,  description  of,  I 65 

"     Thin  Grass,     "         " 39 

Technical  terms,  use  of, 12,  14,  16,  17 

Temperature  of  wheat  districts, 241 

Three-awned  Grass,  description  of, 59 

Tickle  Grass,  "         " 39 

Time  of  sowing  grass-seed, 294,  296,  298 

Timothy,  description  of, 12,  17,  34,  332 

"         sown  with  clover, 35 

"         time  of  cutting 299,  301,  303,  305 

Toothache  Grass,  natural  history  of, 61- 

Top-dressing  of  grass  lands,      328,  362,  367,  375,  376 

Treatment  of  grass  lands 351,  355,  362,  381,  385 

Truncated  Koeleria,  natural  history  of, 70 

Tufted  Hair  Grass,  description  of, 121 

Twin  Grass,  natural  history  of, 66 

Twitch     "         "  «        " 115,  116 

Upright  Sea  Lyme  Grass,  description  of, 119 

Vanilla  Grass,  description  of, 131 

Vegetation,  conditions  of, 239,  240 

Velvet  Grass,  natural  history  of, 129,  130 

Vilfa,  rough-leaved, 37 

"      hidden-flowered,      37 

Virginia  Cut  Grass,  description  of,      26,  27 

Water  Hair        «  "  « 123 

"      Spear       "      natural  history  of,      75 

34 


398  GENERAL    INDEX. 


Wavy  Meadow  Grass, 80 

Weak  Meadow  Grass, 81 

Weeds,  analysis  of, 234 

Wheat,  natural  history  of, 117 

"      culture  of, 158,  160,  163,  281 

"      composition  of, 162 

"      climatic  range  of, 261,  263 

White  Clover,  description  and  culture  of, 188 

"     Grass,  natural  history  of, 26 

"     Top,  "  "       " 42,  123 

"     Mountain  Rice, 56 

Wild  Water  Foxtail, 33 

"    Chess,  description  of, 107 

"    Oat  Grass,  natural  history  of, 123 

Winter  Wheat,  effect  of  snow  on, 263 

Wire  Grass 91 

Wild  Rice,  description  of, 28 

Woburn  Experiments,  account  of  the, 218 

Wood  Hair  Grass,  natural  history  of, 120 

"      Reed     "       description  of, 45 

"     Meadow  Grass, 84 

"     Spear          "         81 

Woolly  Beard  Grass,  description  of, 148 

Yellow  Oat         «  "  " 126 

Yellow-eyed  Grasses,  list  of, 199 


MILCH  COWS  AND  DAIRY  FARMING. 

PHILLIPS,  SAMPSON  &  CO. 

13     -WIlsrTEIR,      STIREE  r,    BOSTO3ST, 
HAVE  JUST  PUBLISHED  A  NEW  WORK  ON 

MILCH  COWS  AND  DAIRY  FARMING; 

A    TREATISE   ON   THE 

Breeds,  Breeding,  Selection,  and  Management  of  Dairy 
Stock ;  with  a  full  explanation  of  Guenon's  Method 
of  Selecting  Cows  ;  the  Diseases  of  Cows  and  Calves ; 
the  Milk,  Butter,  and  Cheese  Dairies,  including  the 
modes  of  making  the  most  celebrated  varieties  of 
English,  Dutch,  and  Italian  Cheese  ;  with  a  Treatise 
on  the  Dutch  Dairy,  translated  from  the  German. 

By  CHARLES  L.  FLINT, 

SECRETARY  OF  THE  MASS.  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Fully  and  Beautifully  Illustrated  with  130  Engravings. 

1  vol.  12mo,  416  pages.     Price  $1.25. 
For  Sale  by  Booksellers  and  Periodical  Agents  throughout  the  country. 


From  a  multitude  of  notices,  all  expressing  great  satisfaction  with 
the  practical  manner  in  which  the  whole  subject  is  treated,  we  select 
and  condense  the  following 

OPINIONS   OF  THE   PRESS. 

We  recommend  the  work  to  every  one  who  keeps  a  cow,  or  intends 
to  do  so.  —  Ohio  Farmer. 

We  recommend  it  as  a  matter  of  economy;  because,  if  studied,  it 
cannot  fail  to  impart  facts  of  more  vajue  to  most  dairymen  and  dairy- 
women  than  several  times  its  cost.  —  New  England  Farmer. 

It  fills  a  very  important  place  in  the  agricultural  text-books  of  this 
country,  and  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  owner  of  a  cow.  —  Vt. 
Stock  Journal. 

The  most  valuable  book  for  universal  use  among  farmers  that  has 
ever  been  published  in  this  country.  There  is  scarcely  anything 
worth  knowing  about  how  to  select  a  cow,  how  to  treat  her,  and  how 
to  make  butter  and  cheese,  that  cannot  be  found  in  this  volume.  — 
New  York  Tribune. 


NEW    PUBLICATIONS. 


As  a  sound  and  useful  volume,  we  take  pleasure  in  commending  it 
cordially  to  our  readers.  It  can  but  rank  as  a  standard  American 
dairy-book,  —  the  best,  we  have  no  hesitation  in  saying,  yet  issued 
upon  the  subject.  —  Country  Gentleman. 

The  committee  would  earnestly  recommend  to  the  perusal  of  all 
farmers  a  very  valuable  work  recently  issued  from  the  press,  by 
Charles  L.  Flint,  Secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of 
Agriculture,  entitled  "  Milch  Cows  and  Dairy  Farming."  They  will 
find  it  filled  with  details  of  the  most  interesting  and  valuable  facts  and 
suggestions.  —  Com.  of  the  Essex  Co.  (Mass.)  Agricultural  Society. 

A  PEACTICAL   TREATISE 

ON 

GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS, 

Comprising   their  Natural  History,  Comparative  Nutritive 

Value,  Modes  of  Cultivating,  Cutting,  and  Curing, 

and  the  Management  of  Grass  Lands. 

By  CHARLES  L.  FLINT, 

SECRETARY   OP   THE   MASSACHUSETTS    STATE   BOARD    OF    AGRICULTURE  ;     MEMBER 
OF   THE    BOSTON    SOCIETY   OP   NATURAL   HISTORY,    ETC.    ETC. 


PHILLIPS,    SAMPSON    &    CO. 

11   WINTER    STREET,   BOSTON. 


One  of  the  most  valuable  essays  ever  printed.  —  New  York  Tribune. 

The  most  complete  American  popular  treatise  we  ever  read.  — 
Ohio  Cultivator. 

The  work  is  an  eminently  practical  one,  illustrated  by  more  than 
one  hundred  engravings  of  the  various  grasses,  implements,  &c.,  and 
should  be  in  every  farmer's  hands.  —  Homestead,  Hartford,  Conn. 

The  author  has  treated  the  subject  in  the  proper  manner,  making 
his  treatise  perfectly  comprehensible  to  the  ordinary  intellect,  and  at 
the  same  time  so  full  of  accurate  details  that  it  will  be  valuable  to 
the  scientific  student  as  a  work  of  reference.  —  New  York  Times. 

The  work  is  a  valuable  contribution  to  the  agricultural  literature 
of  the  day.  —  Boston  Vet.  Journal. 

One  of  the  most  practical  and  valuable  treatises  on  the  subject  of 
grasses  and  forage  plants  ever  published.  —  Rural  New  Yorker. 

This  is,  we  think,  the  best  treatise  of  the  kind  we  have  ever  seen 
on  this  important  subject. — Agriculturist,  New  York. 


• '  540 


